, 



■. 




Copyright N°. 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT; 



ATHLETIC GAMES IN THE 
EDUCATION OF WOMEN 



BY 



GERTRUDE DUDLEY 

Director of the Women's Department of Physical 
Education, University of Chicago 

AND 

FRANCES A. KELLOR 

Author of "Experimental Sociology" "Out of Work" 




NEW YORK 
HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 

1909 



by 



LIBRARY cf CONGRESS 
Two Comes Recerved 

FEB 5 1909 

Copyritrnt Entry 
6 LASS CC XXc ' No 

i-*^ sat 

COPY 3. 



Copyright, 1909, 

BY 

HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 



Published. February, 1909 



THE QUINN & BODEN CO. PRESS 
RAHVVAY, N. J. 



i 






: $£i & 



TO 
W. G. A. 

WHOSE STANDARD AND ACHIEVEMENTS 

IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION INSPIRE 

THE BEST EFFORTS IN OTHERS 



FOREWORD 

In offering to the public the results of our investi- 
gation, experience and observation, we have pur- 
posely set ourselves certain limitations. For a period 
of ten years we have carefully studied the educational 
value of organized games and have tested with all 
classes of girls — in university, high school, private 
school and social institutions — the theories and sug- 
gestions which we have now put into tangible form, 
in the hope that those interested in social education 
and group welfare, based on the highest individual 
efficiency, will find some value in them. Our experi- 
ments with many hundreds of students and players 
have demonstrated repeatedly that athletic games are 
real factors in education. 

We have attempted no study or discussion of gym- 
nastics or sports, for there are many volumes which 
deal with these subjects. Furthermore, sports are 
individual, their purpose is primarily recreative and 
they do not depend upon the co-operation of any 
other individual. Walking, riding, swimming, golf, 
bowling, archery and track events are types of such 
sports. On the other hand, athletic games are social 
in their nature and may be used for both education 
and recreation. These games consist of a set of 
actions performed according to prescribed rules and 
depend for their success upon the co-operative action 

v 



vi FOREWORD 

of two or more persons. They include the highly 
organized games of basketball, indoor baseball, 
hockey, lacrosse, cricket, etc., as well as such minor 
games as captain-ball, volley-ball, long-ball and 
drive-ball. We have confined our discussion to more 
highly organized games, since Mr. Johnson in his 
excellent work on " Education by Games " includes 
kindergarten and primary games and brings the dis- 
cussion up to the point from which we have started. 
Throughout w T e have maintained the educational point 
of view which w T e believe is the only plane upon which 
athletics for women can be w r isely conducted. 

It may seem in our emphasis on athletics as a train- 
ing for citizenship and as a part of general educa- 
tion, that we have neglected their physical value to 
the individual. While we do not underestimate this 
value, we believe that it is more generally recognized 
and that there are so many advocates in its favor 
that it is unnecessary to emphasize it here. 

Although we have restricted this discussion to 
women, our experience in teaching boys shows the 
need in this field to be hardly less apparent. Among 
men the commercial and competitive spirit pre- 
dominates and there is only a dawning conscious- 
ness on the part of comparatively few men instruct- 
ors of the larger educational worth of athletics. 
Notwithstanding this, athletics as now used do tend 
to develop among men, in some measure, a group con- 
sciousness as well as admirable personal qualities. 
This goes far to show that they possess an intrinsic 
educational value. 



FOREWORD vii 

Many instructors who sent us information and sug- 
gestions requested that they should not be quoted. 
Owing to these requests and the rivalry existing 
among many schools and instructors, we have omitted 
many of the references. It has not been our purpose 
to criticise any school or instructor as such, but to 
present the data in such a way as to make them gener- 
ally useful, and suggestive to schools, instructors, 
parents, players and those interested in community 
welfare. 

We have included a technical discussion of some 
highly organized games now widely used by women 
because there are some who would be willing to teach 
athletics as a part of general education if there were 
a way to master the details. 

We acknowledge a deep indebtedness to the in- 
structors, schools and organizations that have co- 
operated by answering the questionnaire, making sug- 
gestions, and sending us information about their 
equipment, facilities and systems of work ; also to the 
social workers who have gone over the material and 
have made clearer its practical social significance. 

The Authors. 

The University of Chicago. 



X 



CONTENTS 



Part I 
VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I. Citizenship and Social Education ... 3 

II. Educational Value of Athletics ... 19 

III. Instructors — Their Responsibility and Train- 
ing 45 



Part II 
PRESENT CONDITIONS 

IV. Athletics in Secondary Schools ... 69 

V. Athletics in Universities and Colleges . . 96 

VI. Athletics in Political and Social Organiza- 
tions 110 

VII. Competitive and Public Games . . . .149 

Part III 

METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 

VIII. General Training and Contests .... 165 

IX. Basketball 179 

X. Indoor Baseball 212 

XL Field Hockey 237 

INDEX 265 



PART I 
VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 



CHAPTER I 
CITIZENSHIP AND SOCIAL EDUCATION 

However much individuals may differ in their 
opinions as to the position of women in society, their 
rights, their capabilities, their future activities, or 
the thousand and one other phases of their lives and 
character which form topics for discussion of seem- 
ingly never-ending interest, there are certain existing 
conditions and well-defined tendencies in society to- 
day which cannot be properly met by opinions or 
prejudices but which demand and should receive ju- 
dicial analysis, and to meet which women need to be 
adequately prepared. 

Perhaps the most significant change in society's 
demand upon women to-day is the substitution of co- 
operative effort for individualistic effort and the de- 
velopment of group consciousness beyond the family 
circle. This has been a gradual process, so gradual 
that many women in the more secluded walks of life 
do not see the need of a change in the training of 
women to meet a demand, the full meaning of which 
they fail to grasp. 

Social Responsibility of Women. — The most con- 
spicuous change has been in the industrial world. In 
1900 more than 5,000,000 women were found engaged 
in gainful occupations. This by no means includes the 



4 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 

many Vho earn money in their own homes or those 
who supplement their small incomes in one way or 
another. Neither does it include the many children 
who are at work. This entrance into the industrial 
1 world creates a more complex environment, requires 
more rapid adjustment, and above all increases 
greatly the necessity for co-operative work, outside 
the home. 

The extension of the property rights of women in 
many of the states, and the many estates held by 
them, have enlarged the group of women investors, 
capitalists and employers. This has created for them 
broader social responsibilities and the necessity for 
group judgments. Such unavoidable responsibility 
is seen in the wide use which women necessarily make 
of middlemen. Their interests and activities are so 
varied that numerous agents are employed to carry 
out their orders. This removal from the result of 
their acts — for instance, when they receive rents from 
tenements but know nothing of conditions existing 
in them because of their entire reliance upon agents — 
frequently makes them " tolerators but not neces- 
sarily practitioners" of anti-social acts. 

The political field also has been greatly widened. 
Not only have women the franchise in several of the 
>tates, but in others they vote upon educational ques- 
tions and other public matters such as taxation. The 
number who now hold political positions of trust or 
who are engaged in lines of activity which have a 
far-reaching influence upon political affairs is greatly 
increased. 



CITIZENSHIP AND SOCIAL EDUCATION 5 

In the field of social service, including professional 
charity and philanthropy, the ranks are filled with 
women and many others are seeking positions. Re- 
ligious activity in many of its forms of ministration 
is increasingly in the hands of women. 

Social life is no longer limited to the entertainment 
of friends or families, the self-culture club or simple 
home function. These are varied in a thousand ways 
by more impersonal and highly organized social ac- 
tivities, such as card parties with their competitive 
element; club-meetings with their co-operative ele- 
ment; civic activities with their public welfare ele- 
ment ; and auxiliary organizations for great state and 
national movements. Mothers, teachers and workers 
all have some form of organized effort which calls 
for co-operation. 

This increased participation in industrial life and 
in public affairs and variation of social responsibility 
tends at the present time to make women take life too 
seriously, live too strenuously, and results in a diminu- 
tion of rest and relaxation. The play-spirit is yield- 
ing to the work-spirit and the loss of individual play- 
spirit has not yet found its counterpart in the pro- 
portionate increase of the group play-spirit — an es- 
sential thing to the best social activity and balance. 

Even in the home the demand for co-operative work 
is growing. In the cities the complexities have so in- 
creased that its successful maintenance means de- 
pendence upon others in a thousand forms — for serv- 
ice, for food, for protection ; and in return additional 
community burdens are laid upon the housewife — ad- 



6 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 

justment to her workers, maintenance of a higher 
standard of living and observance of laws which are 
made for the equal protection of all. The housewife 
in the apartment or tenement cannot make as much 
noise, or dispose of her garbage, or use her fire- 
escapes, as she will, without reference to the comfort 
of others. Moreover, such are the problems pre- 
sented by our cities that many live in the closer union 
of the co-operative home or apartment hotel where an 
even greater degree of co-operation is required. 

But it is not only girls who marry or who earn 
their own living who are confronted with a greater 
necessity for adjustment. There is in every com- 
munity a small group of girls who have just a bit too 
much money to need to work for a living and too much 
family to make it easy to become useful. Many of 
these have been well educated and along with abundant 
vitality possess the spirit of wishing to do or become 
something worth while from the point of view of 
efficiency in the community. Parents, whose goal 
for their girls is so frequently marriage or social 
success, cannot understand this new community sense 
which is a part of the spirit of the age and the result- 
ing moral, social and economic waste is a serious loss 
to community life. There is enough to do, but neither 
the training nor freedom with which to do it. 

The point is that women can no longer live in such 
a way that they influence only their own homes, family 
and immediate circle. The mother who chats with 
a few neighbors over a cup of tea has not the influ- 
ence that the club-woman has when she gambles with 



CITIZENSHIP AND SOCIAL EDUCATION 7 

a party of fifty or a hundred; or who attends huge 
conventions and runs off elections ; or that the busi- 
ness and professional woman has who meets hundreds 
of patrons and must often decide their moral as well 
as business problems ; or that the thousands of clerks 
and stenographers have who form a part of the mesh 
of industrial and political life; or that the factory 
worker has when she toils with a thousand others. 

Upon the completion of her education, the girl thus 
has no longer the simple choice of marriage, teaching 
or missionary work. She has before her a wide range 
of vocations and a great array of opportunities in 
almost every field — all of which offer her a livelihood 
and practically all of which, while demanding indi- 
vidual efficiency, demand increasingly the power to 
work harmoniously and effectively with the group. 

Influence upon Social Control. — Irrespective of 
women's occupational opportunities, broad as these 
are becoming, there are certain forms of social con- 
trol which they help to create and in a great degree 
to sustain. Such are the customs, beliefs and tradi- 
tions which make society stable. The growing pub- 
licity given to the doings of women has largely in- 
creased their power over the various forms of social 
control and both by suggestion and example each 
individual appeals to and influences a much wider 
circle than in the past. 

Chief among these forms of social control is public 
opinion, which even more than laws makes for the 
happiness or unhappiness of individuals and for the 
welfare or disadvantage of the community. When 



8 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 

women judge within a prejudiced, circumscribed 
horizon, as where they condemn murderers but not 
adulterators of food or officials of a trust who put up 
the price of ice so that babies in tenements die for 
lack of it, they fail to see that they are condemning 
the lesser rather than the greater offender, simply 
because the connection of cause and effect is not so 
apparent in the latter cases. 

While women as a rule are indifferent to any form 
of morality other than virtue in their own sex, small 
wonder is it that infractions of public morality are 
slowly and uncertainly punished by public opinion. 
It does not change the consequences that women's 
false social judgments are due not so much to evil 
thoughts and feelings as to perplexities due to incom- 
prehension of the given elements in a situation or 
to a defective sense of justice. There can be no 
efficient social control by public opinion without a 
deep sense of justice. Sympathy has long been 
accepted as a substitute for this in women. But the 
increasingly varied demands made upon them shows it 
to be an inadequate substitute. Mr. E. A. Ross well 
states this : 1 

" It is obedience that articulates the solid, bony 
framework of social order; sympathy is but the connect- 
ive tissue. As well build a skeleton out of soft fiber as 
construct social order out of sympathies. 

" Not friendly aid, but reliable conduct, is the corner- 
stone of great organization. Now, sympathy will stay 
the hand of the wife-beater, but it will not spurn the 
bribe or spare the lie. It will snatch a child from 

"Ross : " Social Control," p. 12. 



CITIZENSHIP AND SOCIAL EDUCATION 9 

trampling hoofs, but it will not keep the watchman 
awake, or hold the contractor to the terms of his agree- 
ment. It will nerve the rescuing fireman, but it will not 
stimulate the official to do his duty. It will relieve the 
beggar, but it will not stop the adulteration of goods. 
It will man the lifeboat, but it will not lead men to give 
just weight, to make true returns of their property, or 
to slay their country's enemies. ... A person may be 
tender-hearted, and yet do vast harm by dodging 
quarantine, or smuggling in coolies, or falsifying news, 
or stuffing ballot boxes. . . . 

" Sympathy, then, breaks down at just the point where 
we are increasingly in need of security. For our social 
development is marked by the progressive substitution 
of fixed impersonal relations for transient personal rela- 
tions. . . . With the advent of the time when the most 
momentous actions will present no more obvious relation 
to their remote social consequences than does the finger- 
ing of the train despatcher to the fate of distant pas- 
sengers, it will, no doubt, be realized that intermittent 
sentiment is unable to cope with the problem of subordi- 
nation, and that other motives must be called in." 

Relation to Rules of the Game. — Women then, 
whether approved or not, are striving for success in 
almost every field of life and are of growing impor- 
tance in making forms of social control. Every 
field, like every game, has its established rules and 
regulations, — be it domestic, social, professional or 
industrial. The fact that women have had no large 
direct part in formulating these rules does not excuse 
them from sustaining them. It is a mistake to think 
that the selfish individualist, whether man or woman, 
can enter any field or game and play fair without a 
knowledge of the rules and penalties and without 
training. The welfare of society depends upon the 



10 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 

rules being upheld or changed only with the full 
knowledge of all. Competition is the prevailing 
spirit and the development of co-operation is the 
problem in every field of activity in which society is 
concerned. Good clean success requires fair, economi- 
cal and co-operative rules in order that players may 
be equal before them and individual waste may be 
avoided through team work. This being true, is there 
any reason why women, in their respective fields of 
activity and thought, should not abide by the rules 
of the game or contribute to their enforcement and 
improvement? If they are defective in the qualities 
which make for rapid adjustment, is it not reason- 
able to include in their education such training as 
will increase their social understanding and efficiency? 

Personal Morality and Social Ethics. — What is 
the need? Social problems to-day are ethical rather 
than economic. There is enough food and shelter 
for all, such is our control over the forces of nature, 
if only some of the unethical interferences, pro- 
hibitions and inequalities be removed. It is in the 
matter of social ethics that women are most unde- 
veloped and uninstructed. Their sense of morality is 
personal rather than social and passive rather than 
active. To be virtuous is to be good. Vice and 
crime may be a matter of gossip, but their treatment 
as problems is considered to be proper only for men. 
Personal duty obscures civic duty and there is an 
absence of social courage when community interest 
conflicts with personal comfort. 

It is generally conceded that the standard of per- 



CITIZENSHIP AND SOCIAL EDUCATION 11 

sonal morality, based upon virtue, is higher among 
women than among men and it has long been the prac- 
tice to excuse many of the anti-social acts of women 
so long as they remain virtuous. But greater indi- 
vidual freedom, without a commensurate increase of 
the sense of responsibility for the welfare of the com- 
munity, has led to an alarming increase of im- 
morality. Among races where the percentage was 
small, this has become common when they have 
come to our American cities to live. The leisure class 
with not enough outlet for its energy, and industrial 
workers with too much of a drain upon their energy, 
both show the increase. It thus becomes clear that 
this problem of immorality is no longer one for men 
to solve alone or where the single standard of per- 
sonal morality will prove all-sufficient. The tempta- 
tions present themselves in a hundred varied, attract- 
ive forms, half hidden under general industrial or 
social conditions, and the training of the girl, which 
should enable her to understand and guard against 
force, brutality and lust, does not readily recognize 
these in their modern insidious forms. 

The Non-Ethical Group. — The socially non- 
ethical group includes women in every station of life. 
There is the social representative of the family, who 
maintains an elaborate establishment or who is hos- 
pitable, chiefly in order to surpass a rival. There are 
the mothers, wives and daughters of some of the great 
financiers, who enjoy the advantages of wealth won 
under unfair, uneconomic and non-co-operative rules. 
Women are frequently the cause of the pursuit of 



12 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 

great wealth and accept it, without sense of responsi- 
bility, without inquiry or protest, indeed often with- 
out interest, so long as they are comfortable and their 
husbands' reputations remain unsullied. There are 
women who inherit property which they administer 
without any sense of social obligation, indeed without 
any desire to know whence it came or whither it goes. 
There are others who enter professional life and be- 
come a part of bitter professional jealousies and strife 
and think that an increase of practice constitutes 
success, whether won by fair rules or foul. The field 
of politics and government service also contains many 
who belong to this group. Among these, wages and 
individual preferment are placed above service to the 
community and they do not hesitate to recommend 
themselves and strive for positions of honor and trust 
which should be the unsought gift of the public. 
There are working women who take the places of their 
fellow-workers at lower wages or accept wages and 
conditions which compel them to supplement their 
earnings in doubtful ways, because they work for 
themselves alone rather than for the cause of working 
women. 

The Non-Ethical Organization. — Not only this, 
but women combine in organizations for which they 
set the standard and which they alone maintain, and 
there are thus formed socially non-ethical organiza- 
tions. Clubs of this order are those which exist sim- 
ply for the entertainment of their members. Many are 
willing to pay to have a speaker interrupt his busy 
hours of social service to come and entertain them 



CITIZENSHIP AND SOCIAL EDUCATION 13 

with " stories of humanity " ; but by no means with 
the idea of doing anything or of sharing the burden, 
as their shocked expressions reveal when they are 
asked to render active service. There are other clubs 
whose public-spirited leaders do the work, while 
the members pay their dues and only come to hear 
about the " club's work " at special and annual meet- 
ings. There are others which undertake public work 
but cherish it chiefly for the credit or reputation it 
brings to the organization. Such jealously guard 
their " own interests." The bridge whist club which 
utilizes time and energy out of proportion to the 
rights and needs of society, and fosters the gambling 
spirit, falls into this group of organizations. When 
it averages from four to ten hours of play daily, the 
same number of hours required of working women in 
order that they may even live, society has a right to 
be interested in the consequent waste. 

Non-Ethical Acts and Attitude. — The effects of 
socially non-ethical acts are not so easily detected. A 
little disparaging remark in an efficient democracy 
may put some one out of the game or limit her oppor- 
tunities. A lie may place some one in a position 
where her efforts become non-productive. A cheat 
may displace a better person and retard progress. 
Never having a good word for any one else may dis- 
courage others from working for humanity. Dis- 
regard of the rights of others and selfishness set an 
example productive of endless evil. Jealousy may dis- 
tort the whole horizon and break the best of fellowship 
bonds. Cowardice may leave wrongs unrighted and 



14 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 

make friendship a mere gainful occupation. And 
when enough women are daily guilty of these things 
and they are distorted and magnified, there is created 
an atmosphere of cheating, lying, suspicion and un- 
fairness, which vitally affects every interest — the 
home, society and the nation, for these can be no bet- 
ter than the citizens who make them. 

The socially non-ethical attitude, quite as much as 
the act, makes possible the continuance of many con- 
ditions detrimental to the welfare of society. One 
cause of the slow growth of social ethics is the indi- 
vidualistic attitude of women and their interpreta- 
tion of Christian teaching along the narrow path of 
individual salvation rather than as an injunction to 
lose one's life in order to find it more abundantly 
through effort in behalf of the community. Within 
the family, fairness, co-operation and unselfishness 
are kept uppermost by the ties of affection. But 
once outside each member tends to become a bird of 
prey. The attitude is, what can I get out of to-day, 
or out of some one else, or what for my family, with 
little thought of what can be put into the day for the 
benefit of the larger group. Personal moral excel- 
lence may become so narrow as to be socially non- 
ethical, and while such a citizen may rank as " good " 
she no longer fulfils the requirements of American 
citizenship. If those who live in good homes and who 
know the value of fresh air, sanitation and cleanli- 
ness, do not lead the crusade against bad tenements, 
who will? If those who know the effect on children 
of hard hours of labor do not fight for child labor laws 



CITIZENSHIP AND SOCIAL EDUCATION 15 

and the education of ignorant parents, who will? And 
if American-born women, with all the advantages of 
their native country, do not lend a hand to their immi- 
grant sisters, who will make them into good citizens? 
Women do not protest against adulterated foods and 
medicines because they do not happen to use them. 
They do not inquire into the conditions in garment 
factories because cheapness is their standard or they 
can afford a dressmaker and tailor. They are not 
conscientious about their hours of shopping because 
they have no experience as clerks and have not enough 
imagination to put themselves in another's place. 
Irreproachable as their characters may be in their 
own homes and circle, is their social obligation met so 
long as they are indifferent to the welfare of the 
group ? 

There are many who mistake benevolent and philan- 
thropic impulses for social ethics. To give to others 
out of an abundance or even at a sacrifice may be an 
impulse aroused through sympathy, sense of duty or 
sometimes through a desire for self-laudation and for 
personal power. The code of social ethics, on the other 
hand, is founded on justice and equality and has no 
more sense of giving than of receiving, no admission 
of superiority, no attitude of judgment, no conscious- 
ness of magnanimity, no reliance on patronage. One 
is highly personal, the other impersonal; one is indi- 
vidualistic and the other social. Furthermore, the 
benevolent person does not necessarily see inequalities 
and unfair application of rules as does the socially 
ethical person. Social ethics is essentially the result 



16 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 

of team work according to the prescribed rules of the 
game, each player being equal, fair and co-operative, 
so that his team or class may also be these ; each one 
being a necessary factor in the group and realizing 
that the whole group suffers if the enforcement of 
rules and penalties is not the same for all, and each 
being willing to insist upon such enforcement. 

Social ethics can only be realized in a small meas- 
ure through legislation. Stealing, homicide and arson 
are crimes which are dramatically punishable. These 
offenses are plainly immoral. But socially non- 
ethical acts may affect society as disastrously as does 
theft or homicide, though no legal punishment is pro- 
vided. The most serious crimes, judged by results 
upon the whole community, are not necessarily on the 
statute books, and the awakening social conscience has 
begun to perceive this truth. Buying supplies (and 
women are the chief buyers) made under sweat- 
shop conditions makes it possible for many lives to 
be lost yearly because the workers are under-nour- 
ished. Respectable owners of houses which are used 
as dens of immorality make it possible for thousands 
of young girls to be led astray each year. Hiring 
a lawyer to help evade a law which was drawn to 
serve a, great public purpose, but which has a techni- 
cal flaw, may leave a whole group unprotected while 
securing the escape of one individual. Refusal by 
protective organizations to take in penniless and 
homeless women at night because they bring no refer- 
ences or because it is in violation of unwise rules, 
needs no statute to define its consequences. 



CITIZENSHIP AND SOCIAL EDUCATION 17 

While it may be granted that the social conscious- 
ness and conscience of women are not proportionate to 
the needs of society and while it may be admitted that 
much of their effort will for some time remain indi- 
vidualistic and their organized effort characterized 
by disorder and waste, there is no need to be discour- 
aged or to neglect social education. Movements and 
organizations undertaken by women are not the only 
ones that are content with attacking superficial rather 
than fundamental evils, with using air guns where 
only cannon will suffice, and which are so lacking in 
courage that they retard civilization by a million pin- 
pricks rather than by boldly destroying and rebuild- 
ing. The socially non-ethical groups and acts are 
human imperfections, and we have emphasized them 
in women because it is their position, influence 
and activities to which we have confined our atten- 
tion, and because we believe so deeply in women's 
importance as factors in group expression and 
intelligence. 

This glimpse of the unlovely picture of the socially 
non-ethical group has a very bright reverse side which 
we wish might be presented in as much detail, for 
it holds out abundant hope for the future. The 
increasing number of social moral leaders among 
women, and the growing intelligence, interest and 
activities of the mass, many of whom are consciously 
upholding the rules of the game in the group 
interest, give the courage and faith necessary 
to present the less hopeful conditions. There are 
many forces at work in the uplift, and the response, 



18 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 

if still lacking in power, is sincere and enduring. 
This in itself refutes any conclusion that the present 
position of women as group factors is a question of 
incapacity rather than of ignorance and lack of 
opportunity. 



CHAPTER II 
EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF ATHLETICS 

Obviously the demands now made upon women are 
different from those of fifty or twenty-five years ago, 
when home and social duties constituted the chief 
claim. We hope the preceding chapter has made the 
need for training clear. The question is, then, does* 
the education of the day supply such training in ade-t 
quate measure? 

Social Education. — The president of one of the 
city vacation school systems says : x 

" Our first sin of omission is not far to seek. It is ! 
our systematic neglect of girls. How few have looked 
with comprehending eyes upon the less aggressive com- 
panions of boys and seen their problem also? Modern 
city conditions, overcrowding, lack of suitable places for 
play and for quiet normal living are more dangerous for 
girls than for boys. They succumb more readily to 
group influences. It is almost impossible to keep their 
modesty and self-poise in the constant mass living to 
which they are subjected. They early lose their desire 
for play. Their imagination is over stimulated in the 
one direction and becomes nearly atrophied in all others. 
They are sentimental, clinging, affectionate or hard, 
cynical and worldly wise, but nearly always old before 
they are young. Without far more wisdom than we 
have hitherto shown in their education, their moral 

1 Report on Pittsburgh Vacation Schools, 1906. 
19 



20 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 

nature will remain undeveloped, unequal to the fearful 
strain of the temptations to which they are subjected. 
We now follow the line of least resistance — give them 
the sweet sentimental books they like to read, encourage 
them to sit for hours prosaically sewing and allow them 
to gather in gossiping groups for the play hour, nor 
realize, because it all works so smoothly, that we have 
taken the wrong course in every particular. Every- 
where the passive, the conventional, the formal. They 
will have need of bravery in the fight which is before 
them. Has it ever occurred to us to help them develop 
the sterner virtues? Have we substituted new ideas for 
the dominating emotional ones? Have we created in 
them the passion for a larger life and sense of the social 
order which gives them mental and moral poise? Have 
we tried to develop in them a healthy freedom and alert- 
ness of mind and body ? " 

It is not our purpose to criticise present educa- 
tional methods but rather to suggest a way in which 
they may be so extended that girls may receive a 
better social education, thereby increasing group con- 
sciousness and responsibility by a sympathetic interest 
in and understanding of their play-fellows and fellow- 
workmen. The demand for social education is met 
now, so far as it is met at all, by instruction along 
purely intellectual lines, by courses in economics, 
sociology, politics, etc., in what one might call the 
technique rather than in the spirit, and little conscious 
effort is made to increase social efficiency by develop- 
ing and training the spirit itself. We believe that 
athletic games — the spontaneous yet directed ex- 
pression of the play spirit — are peculiarly fitted, if 
intelligently used, to increase social efficiency through 
the development of the right social spirit. That this 



EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF ATHLETICS 21 

efficiency falls short of the need is, in a measure, due 
to some of the limitations placed upon the education 
of women, rather than to incapacity. As a result of 
her studies upon the differences in sex, Dr. Helen 
Thompson says: 

" Psychological differences of sex seem to be largely 
due, not to differences of average capacity, nor to dif- 
ferences in type of mental activity, but to differences in 
the social influence brought to bear on the developing 
individual from early infancy to adult years. The 
question of the future development of the entire life of 
women is one of social necessities and ideals rather than 
of inborn psychological characteristics of sex." x 

Neglect of Athletic Training. — Among these lim- 
itations on education, none is more conspicuous than 
that of athletics, which have received but little recog- 
nition as a character builder or as a factor in group 
training. Games are given a place in the kinder- 
garten and in the primary grades, but beyond these 
they are not only but little recognized but are fre- 
quently discouraged. About the period of adoles- 
cence, the tendency is to prohibit them for girls at 
the very time when group consciousness may be best 
stimulated or on the other hand quite lost if no effort 
be made to develop it. 

Where organized games are now given a place in 
educational institutions, emphasis is almost invariably 
placed upon their recreative and health values. Al- 
though our inquiries have been extensive, we have 
found no schools where they form a part of the edu- 

1 " Mental Traits of Sex," p. 182. 



22 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 

cational scheme for which credit is given and where 
they are maintained as a fundamental part of the 
social education of pupils. 

Relation to Pedagogy. — The omission of athletics 
as a pedagogical factor seems almost inexplicable 
when it is remembered that they may often succeed 
where other activities of the school fail, for they can 
be used to develop mentality and character by means 
of a discipline which other pedagogical methods do 
not possess. Many a girl cannot attain high scholar- 
ship or social distinction, yet success or prominence 
may be necessary to her best development. When she 
is sensitive, shy and socially unsought or unattractive, 
something aside from books or society is needed. 
Such a girl may go through life less wearily and 
monotonously and more healthfully if she has had the 
friends, success and social opportunity which ath- 
letics give. 

Influences Which Retard the Adoption of Ath- 
letics. — It is by no means agreed as yet that women 
need social education, so their training is still largely 
individualistic. There also exists much ignorance on 
the part of educators as to both the value and pos- 
sibilities of athletics in a scheme of education. 9 Fur- 
thermore, the majority of women themselves are indif- 
ferent or content. Any new phase of education has to 
make its way through custom, prejudice and tradition 
before it can demonstrate its worth or win recog- 
nition. Physical education is now making its way 
just as mental education had to make its way, and the 
opposition is as vigorous as that raised against the 



EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF ATHLETICS 23 



: 



so-called higher education. The arguments that ath 
letics injure the health and unsex women were also 
arrayed against their demand for equality of oppor 
tunity in mental training. There have been some 
cases of over-play, as there are many cases of over- 
study, but they are the exception and not the 
rule. This is true, notwithstanding that school au- 
thorities have not only refused to make athletics a 
proportionate part of the school curriculum or have 
tabooed it, thereby giving it an undesirable and 
dramatic prominence, but have also declared it not 
to be a subject for school regulation ! 

One of the greatest bugaboos that have been raised 
and have much retarded the use of athletics as a part 
of the educational system is the fear of public con- 
tests. In the light of actual experience, no fear has 
been more overworked. Adequate supervision and 
training along educational lines have demonstrated 
that this is a matter entirely within the control of 
educators. 

A number of schools prohibit all organized games 
because there are no so-called " girls' games." A 
" girls' game " almost invariably means the reten- 
tion of a large individualistic element — a thing im- 
possible where team work is required. This attitude 
is based upon two erroneous conceptions. 

First, it is assumed that boys' games, when used 
by girls, are injurious to health, deportment and 
manners. Injury to health is frequently exagger- 
ated. When a girl is hurt in a game, the first cry is, 
" No more games." The number of accidents to 



24 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 

women in motors is a hundred-fold greater and no 
such cry is raised. Neither do the casualties result- 
ing from unprotected machinery lead to greater pro- 
tection of women than men workers. Much has been 
written and said about injury to health, but we have 
found no trustworthy studies upon which such state- 
ments can be based. In this age of facts, opinions, no 
matter how prominent the authorities who hold them, 
must carry their proof. Facts cannot be gathered by 
persons spurred on by some personal grievance or by 
those who have as an incentive some time-honored pre- 
judice or whose point of view is obscured by social 
barriers. Nor are they to be gathered by groups of 
society women whose playground is the drawing-room 
and whose sportsmanship has been learned in pursuit 
of fads. A study to determine the physical and so- 
cial advantages and disadvantages of organized games 
includes the essentials of any fair test, namely, con- 
temporaneous, impartial observations by experienced 
and trained persons, during a representative period, 
upon a representative number under all conditions of 
training and supervision. Such a study will be more 
accurate if due weight be given to hereditary and en- 
vironmental influences and if it includes both the edu- 
cational and recreative features of games. 

Second, it is also assumed by the advocates of 
" girls' games " that social education of women needs 
to be of a special kind. While good citizenship re- 
quires varying forms of expression, does it demand 
different moral qualities of men and women, consid- 
ered as citizens? Are not unfairness, selfishness, lack 



EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF ATHLETICS 25 

of honor, failure to co-operate, the spirit of gain 
overshadowing the spirit of service, disastrous to the 
group irrespective of which sex practises them? Are 
not public opinion and social judgments injurious or 
beneficial according to enlightenment rather than to 
sex? 

In demanding separate games for girls, one in- 
structor writes : " Women who play the same games 
as men are constantly compared with them; and as 
they can never play as well, they suffer by compari- 
son." Nothing shows better the usual shallow con- 
ception of the value of games. Are women discour- 
aged in the study of mathematics because they so 
rarely become great mathematicians ; or in music be- 
cause they so seldom become great composers? Is 
there any field in which women and men are not and 
will not always be compared? This matter of play- 
ing games is one to be determined, not by comparison 
of the sexes, but by an educational principle. If 
women can be trained well enough to make athletics 
beneficial and interesting to themselves, then it is good 
for them to play ; if athletics develop in women quali- 
ties valuable to them as individuals and desirable for 
them to possess as members of a social group, then 
also is it well for them to play. 

The Standard of Athletics. — A more fundamental 
explanation of the omission of athletics is the pre- 
vailing standard. Changes in both aims and methods 
along the following lines are imperative before they 
can become a part of an educational system. 

Equal consideration and emphasis upon the educa- 



26 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 

tional and health values are essential. This implies 
that the theory as well as practice be understood. 

Athletics are a means to an end, not an end in 
themselves, and are to be conducted for the good of 
the entire number and not for the purpose of making 
championship teams and developing record-breakers 
and pennant-winners. 

To be educational and truly health-giving, athletics 
need to be under the supervision of as careful and 
well-trained instructors as is any other branch of 
education. 

The spirit to be striven for is not grim determina- 
tion to win at any cost but the exhilaration and joy 
of playing. Athletics thus become social and not 
business arrangements. With such an aim competi- 
tive games become a minor factor. 

Advantages of Athletic Training. — If social edu- 
cation by means of such a standard is possible, how is 
it to be accomplished? 

First, athletics give a sound body, good co-ordina- 
tion, normal impulses and control of the appetites and 
passions. Any social consciousness based upon these 
is sound to start with. How many women with oppor- 
tunity and leisure to obtain these can claim them? 
How many are denied them by the demands of the 
industrial and social systems and look at life hope- 
lessly and pessimistically, lacking the energy and joy 
of living which come from them? 

But aside from this health value, which is more gen- 
erally recognized, they develop on the mental side 
keen perceptions and complex thought processes; on 



EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF ATHLETICS 27 

the esthetic side, good personal habits and improved 
appearance ; and on the social side, a group conscious- 
ness, with its many varying expressions of gracious- 
ness and power. 

It is unnecessary to enumerate all of the qualities 
developed by athletics. It will be remembered that in 
this training there is no theory, no text-book, no 
shady-nook of delusion where the pupil may believe 
she has become the ideal about which she has studied. 
The organized game is the active expression of one's 
natural self, the life in many essential details which is 
lived later away from school and college and a minia- 
ture of the democracy which envelops one in later 
years. 

Individual Qualities and Efficiency. — Some of the 
qualities w r hich may be used as illustrations of mental 
improvement due to athletics are observation, atten- 
tion, concentration, memory, imagination, initiation, 
judgment and will-power. The result of a combined 
use of these qualities is the attainment of a presence 
of mind and self-control in which accuracy, coolness, 
quickness and good judgment are called into use. 
Every one knows how essential these are in any field 
of activity and how indispensable they are to effi- 
ciency. 

In athletics these appear to be most rapidly de- 
veloped by the various games of ball, from the simpler 
ones, such as long-ball, captain-ball, push-ball, volley- 
ball and drive-ball, up to those requiring fine team 
work, such as indoor baseball, basketball and hockey. 

When girls begin to play organized games, even as 



28 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 

late as in college, they frequently have their minds on 
something else and lose opportunities ; their attention 
is easily distracted and they " forget to play " ; they 
do not execute commands promptly; they cannot re- 
member rules or instructions ; they change their minds 
half a dozen times while they hold the ball ; they imi- 
tate rather than originate ; or they " play wild." 

What happens as the result of athletic training is 
clearly visible at an early period. In the first games 
of basketball few players guard their own opponents. 
Every one minds every one's else business and criticises 
other players. No one can be relied upon and what 
will occur in an emergency cannot be foretold. From 
this, girls grow into cool, accurate, steady players, 
use good judgment, are ready for emergencies and 
obtain a poise which cannot be easily shaken. These 
f can never be wholly lost except through degeneration 
or disease and are certainly valuable qualities to pos- 
sess in moments of industrial or social stress. The 
advantage of learning them in a game is that limita- 
tions and defects may be detected and to some degree 
remedied, while in the game of life each failure brings 
an inevitable social consequence. 

Sometimes the distraction of players during the 
first periods of training is ludicrous. One day, while 
working with a squad of green indoor baseball players, 
most of whom were physical education teachers, one 
of them made a splendid hit, good for at least three 
bases. She ran to first and when she was nearly to 
second, turned and went back to first. When asked 
for the reason of this amazing play, she replied, " Oh, 



EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF ATHLETICS 29 

I noticed the first baseman was a friend of mine and I 
went back to tell her something." 

During a beginners' game of indoor baseball, a 
good hard ball was batted past center field and went 
under a spring board. Two men were standing near 
and, as the fielder ran up and saw the ball under the 
board, she hesitated and then said : " Would one of 
you men mind getting that ball for me? " Of course 
the result was a home run for the other side. In the 
economic world such dependence during times of re- 
sponsibility means inefficiency from the employer's 
point of view. 

Another time in basketball a held ball was called. 
Taking the ball the instructor said, " Heels together, 
so I can throw it up between you, and jump and try 
to bat or catch it when it comes down." Just then 
some one asked for an explanation of a play. Imagine 
the amazement when the instructor turned back and 
found that each player, instead of having her own 
heels together, had turned her back to her opponent 
so that the four heels of the two players were to- 
gether. In this way they were waiting to catch or 
bat the ball when it came down between them ! How 
many times has such a lack of the use of reasoning 
power caused social calamities? 

Imagination — It may be difficult to understand 
how games develop some of the mental qualities, such 
as imagination. A requirement for successful plays 
is ability to foresee the results of a given play, as well 
as to put one's self in the place of another. The 
penalty for not being able to do this is so instantane- 



30 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 

ous and direct that the responsibility is immediately 
fixed, and by emphasis upon group relation players 
may be led constantly to place themselves in imagi- 
nary positions. This leads directly to a sympathy 
with other players. It is said that the " tap-root of 
selfishness is weakness of the imagination," and 
imagination certainly is a great aid in developing 
sympathy with other players. In the absence of ex- 
perience, no quality possesses more social value. 

Reason. — The ability to reason developed by 
games is more practical than that gained by mathe- 
matics and other studies. It is not so much the power 
of abstract thought as the control of the instincts and 
the exercise of common sense and judgment during 
activity. 

Social Qualities and Efficiency. — However much 
these mental qualities make for individual efficiency, 
the social qualities which give the right spirit are 
indispensable. One may have coolness, accuracy, 
judgment and many other qualities, but unless these 
are brought into an ethical adjustment team work 
and social consciousness do not result. Thus athletics 
have a second great power — the development of moral 
qualities such as self-control, unselfishness, sense of 
honor, self-sacrifice, fairness, modesty, decision, cour- 
age and sense of responsibility. 

Self-Control. — This must be learned before a game 
can even proceed. The first lessons are in promptness 
and obedience. Take a struggling mass of little East 
Side children. They want to be " on the go " every 
instant and to show off, and have hitherto done this 



EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF ATHLETICS 31 

by chasing each other, shoving, pinching and kicking, 
complaining, sulking, tattling or even going home 
with a " mad on." Obedience to orders is the first step 
out of this maze of energy — obedience when every 
sense and perception is alert. They must listen to 
rules, must play the position given, and fouls are 
called unceasingly when they do not obey. In a little 
while they are actually controlling themselves and 
are preventing fouls and delays. At first they com- 
plain every time they are run into that it is " on 
purpose," and refuse to co-operate with other play- 
ers. Later they regard being run into as an unavoid- 
able accident and work steadily with the team, playing 
often with rivals to whom they have hitherto refused 
to speak. Oftentimes they have asked to play at 
opposite ends of the gymnasium because they did not 
like each other and threatened, " I won't play if I 
have to be with her." With a little skill, games in- 
variably make them forget such differences. The 
next thing is to teach them to be cheerful under de- 
feats and erroneous decisions. 

Co-operation. — While competition is the underly- 
ing principle of all athletic games, it is equally true 
that unselfishness is the basis of all team work. It 
may be contended that women are sufficiently unselfish 
because they are usually self-sacrificing. But their 
self-sacrifice ordinarily centers about emotion, as love 
for children, home, etc. The self-sacrifice brought 
out by team work is quite different, for it is made 
for something impersonal, as a team victory, an in- 
stitution or a thing entirely apart from one's close 



32 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 

ties. It is not a supreme individual effort but is 
shared jointly by others struggling for the same 
end on the same plane. To share a sacrifice robs it 
of individual glory and creates a social glory which is 
akin to the feeling of patriotism. A necessary form 
of unselfishness to be learned is appreciation of the 
ability of others. In the beginning players say, / 
want to play basket ; J want to score ; J want to play 
with the bigger girls ; or I want to make the team. 
After a year's team work this largely disappears and 
quite unconsciously J is replaced by we. 

Fair Play. — Closely allied with unselfishness is fair 
play. A player enters a game with the understanding 
that all forms of interference are adjusted according 
to some prescribed rule. This offers good preliminary 
training for obedience to the more complicated rules 
of organized society. Fair play does not mean taking 
mean advantages any more than it means that a 
team is willing to win by the partiality of the 
umpire ! There are some things not forbidden by the 
rules which the spirit of fair play discourages, just 
as there are some anti-social acts which public 
opinion does not countenance, even though the stat- 
utes are silent on the matter. In every game op- 
portunities arise when a trick, some mean little 
thing or some petty act will bring an advantage. 
Small cheating and petty meanness are soon detected 
by an observant instructor and girls need to be held 
strictly to a fair spirit and to be judged solely by 
their playing. Pettiness is often more distressing 
than open unfairness. Small vices, such as narrow- 



EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF ATHLETICS 33 

ness, spite, ungenerous judgment, intolerance and in- 
ability to omit the personal element creep in and 
should not be excused, for they are the insidious 
enemies of fair play and can only be eliminated by 
activities which constantly take players beyond them- 
selves. 

Fair play also means willingness to take a fair share 
of the blame. Among new players is constantly 
heard : " It wasn't my fault " ; " She did that " ; or, 
" I could not help it." There is no more important 
thing for girls to learn than how to take fair 
criticism. Many unattractive habits, ungenerous 
thoughts and unworthy acts are due not to ineradi- 
cable things in the individual, but rather to her lack 
of knowledge of their existence and portent. 

Loyalty. — Loyalty and a sense of honor are 
among the most difficult qualities to develop in girls. 
They are on the whole not very loyal to each other 
and are not strongly inclined to organization. In 
games players cannot cheat or bluff through or get 
credit for things which they do not do. They cannot 
lay blame on others. At first when they do not win, 
they are inclined to sneak off in tears. If a sense of 
honor and loyalty are made to mean anything, after 
a little training most girls will be found standing 
bravely with their team in defeat, congratulating the 
other team or modestly accepting their share of the 
team's victory. It is a great thing to learn to be a 
good loser. It is also a great thing to share victory 
and feel that some one else has done as much as one's 
self to win it. There are many girls who never have 



34 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 

had this sense of sharing victory or defeat in the 
guise of group loyalty. 

At first some girls are inclined to violate the rules 
laid down for health, such as length of practice, times 
of playing, etc., thinking " the instructor will not 
catch me at it," but later they come to feel, " It isn't 
the square thing to do when I am trusted." After a 
little training, rules come to be regarded as a mutual 
agreement and many players even consider themselves 
a party to their making. It is a great moral gain 
for girls to feel that these are agreements not to be 
broken. 

Courage. — It takes the finest kind of courage to be 
fair, to be honest and to be loyal — qualities absolutely 
essential to good team work. Physical and moral 
courage and especially the latter are unquestionably 
among the greatest needs of our modern civilization 
and among all individual qualities can least be dis- 
pensed with in group activities. 

It may be thought that prejudices, little vanities 
and jealousies, unkind words or exaggerated state- 
ments have little harm in themselves and that brag- 
ging and snobbishness are perhaps pardonable under 
some conditions. Games reveal these qualities in their 
exact proportion and without the softening arts of 
the drawing-room. Nothing is so good for a girl as 
to find that money, clothes, family, prestige or influ- 
ence do not help her in the least degree to play good 
ball or to make a team. When a player stands or 
falls absolutely by what she is and can do, she realizes 
that the game makes all equal. Whenever college 



EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF ATHLETICS 35 

clubs use " influence " to get their members on teams 
it frequently makes not only a weaker team, but, more 
important still, it makes it impossible for contests 
to teach fair play, since it destroys the educational 
value by making the basis of selection unfair. 
V . Sense of Responsibility. — The player learns many 
other things. She acquires a sense of responsibility 
which makes her do her part faithfully and she does 
not excuse herself on the ground that she thought 
some one else would do it. All the risks, hazards and 
opportunities are for her to use on her own initiative. 
If she fails she must bear the blame and chaffing with 
the simple resolve to do better next time. She is 
prompt. Tardiness may mean not only that she will 
have to wait her turn or not play at all, and thereby 
lose some of the fun, but she realizes that it may also 
weaken her team. Then, too, she acquires a sense of 
proportion. The new player not only dissipates her 
energy in useless plays and tires herself out without 
accomplishing anything, but her idea of her own im- 
portance is sadly disproportionate to her real value 
to the team. It is this prevailing sense of difference 
which gives an excuse for ignoring the rights of 
others. Games so lessen this that a player soon learns 
that essential of fairness — to judge others on an 
equality with herself. After playing for a while 
she comes to realize the limitations of her importance 
as well as of her ability, for over-confidence brings 
sure defeat. Many women who have had the advan- 
tages of college training but not of athletics, and who 
have not gained this sense of proportion, magnify 



36 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 

both their importance and advantage to the practical 
world in a way which sadly handicaps them in doing 
effective work. 

Discipline. — The discipline incident to games is of 
the utmost value in education. One instructor writes : 

" Games do provide this discipline. During a period 
of twelve years, I can certainly say that they help to 
create a broader point of view in the school and to 
promote friendliness, mutual appreciation and forbear- 
ance and to lessen the spirit which imparts personal 
motives into every action." 

Development of moral qualities necessarily means 
control of the emotions. Here games have an especial 
advantage for girls, for many are abnormally sen- 
sitive, introspective or morbid and live too subjective 
a life. The various ethical and religious cults which 
emphasize the subjective appeal strongly to them and 
are frequently made a substitute for healthful normal 
work and interests. Games are largely objective and 
afford little opportunity for analysis of feeling or 
consciousness of the process. The attention is cen- 
tered upon the thing to be done and not upon the 
process of doing it. 

Training for Citizenship. — These qualities are not 
essentially masculine. They are but human qualities 
needed for human fellowship. We have yet to see a 
group of girls made masculine where the spirit of the 
training has been that which we have endeavored to 
portray. 'We do not mean to say, of course, that 
every individual trait can be strengthened or every 
defect removed by game work or that games alone 



EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF ATHLETICS 37 

will do this. But we do mean to say that athletic 
games, when put on a proper basis and under intel- 
ligent trained instructors, will accomplish far more 
than has ever been required of them. 

It is evident that the training obtained through 
athletics is carried over into the business and social 
life after the girl leaves school. Other things being 
equal, she is ordinarily a fairer competitor and better 
citizen. The responsible, reliable player becomes the 
same kind of a citizen, for in games moral energy is 
stored up and habits established which govern the 
activities in later life. The girl who has learned 
through the experience of games not to do unfair 
things under the stress of competition has had the 
training which enables her to face temptations later 
in life where the stakes involve large interests. The 
girl who shirked responsibility on the field does not 
alter her course in later life. The girl who gave up 
basketball because she could not get more than her 
share of praise will still be found baiting for this 
indispensable necessity to vanity. The girl who was 
unfair and intemperate in games carries these same 
qualities over into her social or business world and 
every one who lives or works with her is affected by 
them. The girl who failed to do team work or re- 
fused to play games at all continues an individualist 
in her later activities. Whatever is acquired of 
good social and moral qualities is taken into the 
home and tends to raise the home standard and so 
affects the community in a broad way ; while if pupils 
are perrnitted to become sneaks and cheats and to 



38 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 

cherish a mean, contemptible, selfish spirit, that like- 
wise influences the community to its detriment. Mod- 
ern civilization is complex, strenuous and often artifi- 
cial and our system of education needs organized 
games to prepare the girls for organized life and 
activities. 

General Advantages of Training. — There are also 
some general advantages which games possess. They 
afford a healthful, impersonal topic of conversation 
and this is much to be appreciated in schools where 
numbers of girls are segregated and in clubs where 
undesirable topics may arise. 

Pride in " good condition " has an ethical value, 
for it prevents many a snare into which one indifferent 
to it may fall. The girl who " does not care " or who 
puts clothes above " good condition " is much in need 
of athletic training. 

The amount of real happiness given by games is 
often underestimated and this is an important factor 
in character-building. 

More emphasis is needed on leisure, and by increas- 
ing play requirements educational institutions may 
do much to bring this about. The growing commer- 
cial spirit in educational institutions so hurries stu- 
dents that they have no time for games. Think of 
it ! The play spirit which should characterize 
youth has not only to be stimulated but games 
may really have to be made compulsory in order to 
. retain it. 

Esthetic Value of Organized Play. — The es- 
' thetic training obtainable by means of games is 



EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF ATHLETICS 39 

receiving an increased amount of thought. This in- 
cludes the personal appearance of players and the 
spirit of games. In the former, the first essentials are 
that girls stand well, walk well, run well, throw well 
and wear a neat and attractive costume. Dress has 
received much attention as a matter of comfort but 
not enough from the esthetic standpoint. 

The correction of bad habits and manners on the 
field is also a part of the esthetic training. The ab- 
sence of uncouth language, squealing and yelling, 
crying, disagreeable facial expressions, eating between 
halves of games and boisterousness, is the result of 
emphasizing the esthetic feature of games. New play- 
ers are inclined to think that slang is the language 
most appropriate and strength the main asset for a 
successful game. 

The dignity of play has been far too much sacri- 
ficed to the so-called fun of playing which so fre- 
quently develops into roughness. A matter needing 
considerable attention is the conduct of teams between 
the halves of match games and the attitude of their 
friends and audience. In one of the most prominent 
woman's colleges, it was not unusual to see the teams, 
when resting between halves, lie down on the floor in 
front of the audience while an army of friends rushed 
out with lemons, towels and pails of water and began 
feeding, rubbing and washing them. Only after pro- 
tests on the part of the players did their captain allow 
them to sit up. Some of the* players tried to look 
warm and tired so as to receive more attention. This 
kind of thing is common in match games between 



40 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 

schools and is mere gallery play, which is often con- 
fused with sportsmanship. 

The next best thing to getting on the team is to be 
a sympathetic friend, and this is at present an over- 
worked part and induces players to sham exhaustion 
and overwork, a practice which hurts the game. 

Another thing which frequently occurs and robs a 
game of dignity is interference on the part of friends 
and audience. When a player becomes dizzy from an 
unexpected collision, or a trifling accident happens, or 
when a player squeals easily over small things, or the 
instructor lets her go on playing " on her nerve," 
then the friends and audience begin to protest. " She 
ought not to play " ; " She will hurt herself," etc. 
When time is called for breathing space or for trifling 
matters, friends collect about the players and exag- 
gerate the situation. A responsible instructor and cap- 
tain are the best judges of when players should come 
off the field or when they are really over-playing or 
merely shamming. These conditions are to be con- 
trolled by right training and responsible instructors 
and not by the . sympathetic interference of friends 
and audiences who cannot possibly judge the situation 
and who thus misrepresent the effect of the game. 

In the official rules for basketball appears this 
statement : 



" The greatest danger in connection with athletic 
sports is not that men will get hurt, but that in the ex- 
citement of the game and on account of great desire for 
victory they will do things that are ungentlemanly and 
discourteous. This fear is shared for girls and has to 



EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF ATHLETICS 41 

some measure retarded the use of athletics. This fear 
will not be realized if the object of all players is good 
sport and not the mere winning of victory. Sport which 
violates the principles of courtesy and good character 
is never good sport." 

When we first insisted that form be a requirement of 
making the university class teams and that no girl 
who persisted in careless dress and playing should 
participate in any match game, there was considerable 
indignation. But before the close of the year scarcely 
a player needed a reprimand for disorderly appear- 
ance ; some who had been exceedingly careless admit- 
ted that improvements in street dress and manner were 
due to this training. When a team " straggles " on 
the field; when players chew gum; when they lie or 
sit upon the floor or gather in groups and talk when 
time is called ; when they call to each other ; or when 
they clap hands or whistle for the ball, — then the 
audience may be certain that good form is not con- 
sidered. Few girls have thus far learned the beauty, 
joy and science of the silent game. Grace and silence 
are among the anticipations rather than the realiza- 
tions, and some still confuse noise with sport and 
having a good time. 

Certainly by paying attention to the esthetic side, 
grace can be developed. One basketball player rarely 
stopped a ground ball without falling down and roll- 
ing over. When this matter was brought to her at- 
tention, she said she was " top-heavy " and could not 
help it. Her measurements were taken and some spe- 
cial work given, and she was told that she played well 



42 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 

enough to make her class team but for this unfortu- 
nate tendency. In less than two months there was 
such a decided improvement that she made the team.' 
The esthetic possibilities of games also appeal 
strongly to many of the little settlement players and 
working girls who thus have their eyes opened on a 
new world. 

Atmosphere of Games. — The spirit of playing is 
the second essential in a beautiful game. The atmos- 
phere makes or mars its beauty. This spirit is shown 
chiefly by the attitude of players toward each other, 
toward officials and toward their audience, if there 
be one. It is also made up of the kind of interest and 
appreciation which the audience gives. Enthusiasm, 
unfailing courtesy, even under the most trying cir- 
cumstances, avoidance of disputes, acceptance of de- 
cisions, joyous rather than competitive playing, 
friendliness — these are tests of whether a team has 
been trained with the idea of preserving the beautiful 
features. Later, these are also tests of whether one 
has the right attitude toward one's vocation. 

Social Value to the Audience. — We have thus far 
considered only the education of players. It is safd 
that " the fatal moment for a game arrives when peo- 
ple prefer to see it played by others rather than play 
it themselves." The day arrived long ago for women ; 
and worse still, many do not care to see games played. 
At the Brooklyn Bridge any evening during the sum- 
mer, the parks and streets are densely packed with 
men and boys. When a roar bursts forth, the 
stranger may think it is a riot, but it is only the play 



EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF ATHLETICS 43 

spirit of the multitude, shut out of the baseball field, 
cheering a good play chalked on the scoreboard, — 
a pathetic sight for one who loves games but hopeful 
since this spirit can be kept alive under such con- 
ditions. But in all this crowd, few passing women or 
girls even glance at the board. It is true profes- 
sionals are playing, but in that crowd of men and boys 
exists group consciousness and through it surges 
enthusiasm. 

Games played by women can be taught and played 
with a view to making them interesting and educa- 
tional to the audience; if this be neglected, there is 
small justification for inviting persons to attend. If 
small groups are interested here and there many 
women who would not otherwise attend games might 
get back a little of the play spirit and enthusiasm 
which enable them to understand the girls' point of 
view. Not enough parents now know what athletics 
mean. If they see that games are rough and in- 
jurious they should be able intelligently to lend a 
hand at regulation or suppression. If games are well 
conducted and beneficial, parents can do much to fur- 
ther good sport by their interest and approbation. 

There are thousands of women not strong or young 
or interested enough to play organized games who 
need to understand and appreciate good, clean sport. 
Audiences which applaud unfair plays or points made 
on fouls unconsciously become a party to fraud, while 
the influence of victory won by clean, fair plays is 
equally uplifting. Every girl who cheers her team at 
a class contest ; who gets out " grinds " to a meet ; 



44 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 

who brings her mother and friends ; who arouses club 
interest; who interests the neighborhood; who gets 
up songs or otherwise stimulates interest, renders a 
social service by opening some little corner of a 
crusted mind or heart to a love of games, and also 
stirs the group spirit. One of the best ways to keep 
a good spirit is to have the audience in harmony with 
the players, and have it respond to good clean plays 
and discourage " dirty playing." 

Because of the great educational value to the audi- 
ence and the limited opportunities for women to play 
games, the community or municipality has an obliga- 
tion in providing and supervising clean games by 
men to which admission should be free and to which 
women should be encouraged to come. 

The educational possibilities of athletic games, em- 
bracing mental, social, ethical and esthetic features, 
seem to the writers to be very great, and the subject 
is one to which educators throughout the country may 
well give thought in their efforts to adapt studies and 
work in order that girls may be better fitted for their 
place in life, — be it the home, the shop, the school, the 
office or any other avenue open to them. 



CHAPTER III 

INSTRUCTORS — THEIR RESPONSIBILITY 
AND TRAINING 

Whenever any activity possesses the power of 
being either good or bad for the individual or group, 
the question of leaders becomes of the utmost impor- 
tance. Athletics have this power as does no other 
form of physical activity. On the one hand they 
are capable of being carried on in such a way as to 
develop strength, nobility, generosity, truthfulness, 
fairness and force of character or they may bring out 
meanness, trickery, dishonesty, viciousness and weak- 
ness of character. It is useless to expect that girls 
will spontaneously develop only good qualities. It is 
idle to urge that athletics be used for their educa- 
tional value unless they are under the supervision of 
teachers who are intelligent enough to understand 
their full significance, well trained enough to teach 
principles which make a clean, accurate game and 
strong enough to exemplify such principles on the 
field. It is therefore a question of competent teach- 
ing and capacity for leadership. Those now in the 
profession or who enter it within the next decade will, 
to a great extent, determine the standard of athletics 
now in the process of making. This standard will 
depend, among other things, upon: (1) The qualifica- 

45 



46 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 

tions of instructors. (2) Opportunity and thorough- 
ness of training. (3) The demands of employing 
schools. 

Special Qualifications of Instructors. — What con- 
stitutes necessary qualifications are not always clearly 
defined even in the minds of those upon whom fall the 
selection and training of instructors. Our replies 
from about one hundred schools and colleges em- 
phasized qualifications of character rather than of 
technical proficiency. Many private school principals 
showed little comprehension of the question, while a 
few thought our questions too general to answer. En- 
thusiasm received the highest number of votes. The 
others in order were firmness or decision, fairness, 
leadership, personality, high moral character and 
standard, good judgment, honesty, justice, tact 
and good breeding. Sympathy, a pleasant manner, 
thoroughness, comradeship, executive ability, common 
sense and courage each received one mention. 

In the matter of proficiency, less than twenty per 
cent, mentioned knowledge of the game, and but two 
per cent, specified clearly that this meant ability to 
play the game itself. Four per cent, thought a 
knowledge of physiology and hygiene desirable and 
two per cent, emphasized experience. The most fre- 
quent combinations of qualifications were: Enthusi- 
asm and good character; decision and honesty; and 
enthusiasm, knowledge of game and good character. 
Among the more comprehensive ones were : " Knowl- 
edge of game, keen sense of justice, honor, sense of 
what constitutes good behavior, knowledge of peda- 



INSTRUCTORS— THEIR RESPONSIBILITY 47 

gogy and of human nature, appreciation of something 
better than the commercial spirit "; " honesty, judg- 
ment, quickness, executive ability and enthusiasm for 
the sport and not only to win " ; and " honesty, im- 
partiality, good judgment, tact, physical ability and 
personality." In contrast with these were: "ability 
to teach tricks " ; " same training as any other teacher 
in the school " ; and " attractive, graceful, refined 
person who knows her business." The recognition of 
the necessity for high character, fair play and other 
ethical qualities speaks well for a high standard, if 
they are really insisted upon. 

On the instructor falls the responsibility of making 
games educational and of giving them a place in the 
school's plan as well as of safeguarding the health of 
pupils. In order to meet her responsibility something 
more is required than was included in many of the 
replies, some of which are quoted above. 

In our judgment, the qualifications least to be dis- 
pensed with are the following: 

. First and always a play spirit. Only one who loves 
games and who has learned obedience under the stress 
of competition can develop the best spirit in others. 
When women are without the play spirit, supervision 
is likely to become mere executive detail. They miss 
the joy of playing and consequently fail to bring 
it out in their pupils. Where instructors really dis- 
like games they administer them in a purely perfunc- 
tory manner. Recently a new teacher discontinued 
games because " they made the girls more difficult to 
control," entirely losing sight of the fact that the 



48 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 

girls were sadly in need of discipline and of an out- 
let for energy. 

Second, ability to do the thing taught. This is the 
surest means of winning the respect, confidence and 
loyalty of players, who do not give these to teachers 
whom they excel and who therefore cease to be an 
inspiration. It would seem unnecessary to emphasize 
such a qualification, did not a large percentage of 
schools employ teachers who lack such ability. Who 
ever heard of a language teacher who had received no 
instruction in languages ; or a teacher of music who 
did not know her notes? But a teacher who does not 
know rules or cannot throw a ball ! " Well, the girls can 
just be turned out to play, you know "; or, " They 
can buy rules and teach each other " ; or " Make their 
own rules." When schools realize that it is just as bad 
form to make their own rules for a standard game as it 
is to create their own French pronunciation, athletics 
may be really taught. Often when girls are quarreling 
over rules, the teacher who does not play thinks what 
a good time they are having and wonders what it is 
all about. Bad tempers and cheating thus go unre- 
buked, and if accidents occur, bad manners result or 
character is warped, it is " the fault of the game." 

An instructor in charge of a school for girls for 
many years writes: 

" But any school makes a mistake which does not have 
on the staff some teacher young enough to be a com- 
panion to the girls and sympathize with their view of 
life, and such enjoy games for their own sake and prefer 
taking their recreation in games/ ' 



INSTRUCTORS— THEIR RESPONSIBILITY 49 

Ability to teach implies that the instructor knows 
the game so well that she is able both to classify and 
interpret rules. It is also an advantage to know the 
history and theory of the game ; the reasons for rules 
and their changes; what demands the various games 
make on the organs and vitality and what their 
physical, mental and moral advantages are. Among 
the questions asked in our investigation was : " What 
rules do you use and why do you prefer them? ' A 

frequent answer was : " We use rules because 

they are easier to get." 

In the third place, it is desirable that the instructor 
have an ideal a little beyond that which her play- 
ers can attain ; otherwise they soon get the idea that 
they know all about it and have nothing to " work 
up." This often explains lack of interest where com- 
petition is not used to stimulate it. The instructor's 
conception of the value of her own work is important. 
If she regards it merely as exercise or as a subject of 
minor importance, and if she permits others so to re- 
gard it, she does not support the standard which 
physical educators who believe in athletics are en- 
deavoring to establish. 

It will be conceded that the instructor needs to be 
a disciplinarian. But it is also necessary that she 
be able to tell when to insist upon the letter and when 
upon the spirit of the game. A sense of humor 
is a most helpful factor in this. There are days 
when she works her players and others when she 
only plays with them. A sense of humor not 
only relieves the tension but it tends to eliminate 



50 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 

that most undesirable feature of instruction — sar- 
casm or ridicule. 

Confidence in herself and players is also helpful. 
The skeptic, cynic and pessimist do not ordinarily 
make good instructors, for they have too frequently 
lost the play spirit. Ability to give frank, honest 
criticism of faults and appreciation of achievements 
usually accompanies such confidence, but not when it 
has grown into egotism. 

Personality is an elusive thing. It usually implies 
a gift for managing people and ability to compel 
respect, to interest and to inspire. The instructor 
needs to combine friendliness with these. Whatever 
she has of social presence, refinement, character and 
experience is a great help. 

At the risk of being criticised for describing an 
ideal rather than a teacher, there is one other quality 
which we have found indispensable, that of courage — 
courage to teach a clean, fair game in the face of 
discouragements and defeats; courage to be a real 
person, free from affectation and unworthy ambition 
and to stand for the square thing even when the 
school itself may not give its support. 

In brief, then, the things to look for in the candi- 
date are: Play spirit (often disguised as enthusiasm) ; 
ability to play as well as teach; belief in educational 
value of games ; a personality which has capacity for 
leadership and ability to inspire; and a character 
which, in addition to true culture and a spirit of fair- 
ness, possesses the somewhat rare quality of high 
moral courage. 



INSTRUCTORS— THEIR RESPONSIBILITY 51 

General Qualifications of Instructors. — These may 
be called special qualifications. Added to these, are 
general training such as a fair education and knowl- 
edge of such subjects as anatomy, physiology, hy- 
giene, dietetics, pedagogy, psychology and sociology. 
If it is not possible to find instructors with all of these 
qualities and of this general training, each school 
must decide for itself which it can best do without, 
according to its conditions. 

Relation of Instructor to Players. — Not enough 
attention has been paid to the relation of instructors 
to players. The athletic field is different from the 
classroom — just as play is more natural and less 
formal than study, and suggestion plays a large part. 
For instance, partiality may undermine the value of 
the game. The instructor who permits players to do 
favors for her or who accepts homage or devotion can 
rarely instill a spirit of fair play. In a measure, the 
attitude of the instructor also determines that of 
players to each other. If she is undignified and un- 
fair she may expect these of her players. If she 
lounges about, uses slang and nicknames, the girls 
are likely to do so. Topics of conversation that she 
favors will become the popular ones. Many instruct- 
ors fail because they cannot distinguish between 
friendliness and familiarity ; while, on the other hand, 
harshness or indifference greatly lessens free expres- 
sion of the play impulse. 

Men as Instructors — In any consideration of this 
subject, an important question is whether instructors 
shall be men or women. It is frequently contended 



52 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 

that men are better fitted for this field. This must 
necessarily be true until the social education of women 
becomes much broader. But there are some serious 
objections to men instructors. 

Invariably men teach according to prevailing 
standards for men, while the type of instructor who 
will teach athletics as a branch of education is most 
needed. Men instructors train primarily for contests, 
are interested in developing teams and have little pa- 
tience with weak girls. 

All careful athletic games are based upon physical 
examinations taken by the instructor. Obviously a 
woman should do this. 

Men instructors show one of two tendencies. First, 
if they see a real interest, they overwork women be- 
cause they do not realize their physical limitations. 
At times there should be a light practice or none at 
all, and this is a matter which men cannot properly 
supervise. Second, they go to the opposite extreme 
and think because women cannot play as well or as 
much as men they can play as they please ! In that 
case they assume a gallant and indulgent attitude 
and permit players to violate rules, " because they 
will not become professionals and it does not 
matter." This is really a most serious objection 
from the point of view of the educational value of 
games. 

Where the instructor is a woman there is, moreover, 
no possible complication from the question of sex. 
Some persons in charge of athletics think that men 
interest girls more in their work and are therefore 



INSTRUCTORS— THEIR RESPONSIBILITY 53 

more desirable. Ordinarily the interest should be in 
the game itself and not in the one who teaches it. 

The great disadvantage of women teachers lies in 
their narrow, individualistic training, which often 
prevents their exemplifying or developing desired 
qualities of character in their pupils ; their inclina- 
tion to " baby " players and thus strengthen selfish 
tendencies; and their willingness to teach an in- 
accurate game. So long as specific attempts are not 
made to eliminate these defects, men will necessarily 
keep the lead in both quality of leadership and of 
instruction. 

Schools of Physical Education. — It is one thing to 
set a standard, and quite another to find instructors 
to maintain it. Naturally much is expected of schools 
which train teachers for this field. The present sup- 
ply comes from four main sources — schools of physi- 
cal education, normal schools, colleges which require 
physical training for graduation and schools of 
elocution and oratory. 

We found that the majority of trained teachers 
were pupils or graduates of schools of physical edu- 
cation either at their regular or summer sessions. 
With a few exceptions, they had charge of both gym- 
nastics and athletics. This being true, it is important 
to know what athletic training these schools give. 
The following are brief statements of the work offered 
by the leading schools : 

A. This school offers a two years' course. During 
the first term of the Junior year, on a schedule call- 
ing for five hours of work daily, one and one-half 



54 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 

hours weekly are offered, but it is not clear if these 
are gymnastic or athletic games. During the second 
term, on a schedule calling for four hours of work 
daily, the same work is offered and athletics are given 
during one month out of doors, but the amount is not 
stated. So far as we can learn there are no intro- 
ductory or other lectures on athletics, no discussion 
of their relation to other physical work or to educa- 
tion. In the Senior year, during the first term on 
a schedule calling for six hours of work daily, six 
hours per week for one month are devoted to training 
classes in athletics and during the second term some 
time during the month of May is used for out-of-door 
work. Doubtless there are extra hours which the 
pupils themselves give to practice, which however is 
not compulsory. 

B. The instruction appears to be graded and the 
course covers three years. During the first year only 
practice work is offered in elementary athletics, which 
is stated to include: standing jump, running jump, 
high kick, starting in running and running vault, 
gymnastic games, basketball and minor games of 
ball. During the second year, practice is given in 
games and field sports. Not until the third year is 
any work offered in theory and it is limited to the 
regulations governing athletic and gymnastic com- 
petitions, construction and equipment of athletic 
grounds and administration and management. Prac- 
tice work is provided in running, jumping, hurdling, 
shot put, field sports, out-of-door games, rowing, 
hockey and in conducting contests. This school 



INSTRUCTORS— THEIR RESPONSIBILITY 55 

recognizes the needs of secondary schools by providing 
supplemental courses so that pupils may be fitted to 
teach combination subjects, as English and basketball; 
history and baseball, etc. The postponement of all 
work in theory until the last year, in view of the fact 
that many do not take the entire course, and the 
absence of fundamental lectures are great disad- 
vantages. 

C. During the fall term of the Junior and Senior 
years, one hour a day for three weeks is given to each 
of the games of tennis, field hockey and golf. Dur- 
ing one year a series of lectures was given upon physi- 
cal training in the public schools in which the prob- 
lem of athletics for girls was discussed. This school 
has an outdoor field for field events, basketball and 
hockey. The pupils are organized into an athletic 
association which conducts the in and outdoor athletic 
meets, under the supervision of the director of the 
school. The catalogue also announces a special course 
for those who wish to become physical directors in 
Young Women's Christian Association work, as fol- 
lows : " Conditions that have demanded this work ; its 
beginnings and development, and the actual present 
conditions (illustrated by charts); comparison with 
school and college work; aims and methods of work; 
qualifications needed in physical directors ; possibili- 
ties of development and advancement for the physical 
director ; the future of this department of the Y. W. 
C. A." 

D. This school provides thirty hours of work per 
year which include lectures on the rules of games and 



56 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 

practice in basketball, baseball, hockey, cricket, etc. 
During the last two weeks of each year the Juniors 
are taken to an adjacent field, where they are practice 
material for the Seniors who instruct them. An in- 
door and outdoor meet are held, in which the Juniors 
enter as contestants and the Seniors run off the 
events. The Juniors are not required to practise for 
these events. Most of this work is crowded into a 
short time at the end of the year, and the practice 
of taking charge of field athletics gives just enough 
work to enable pupils to say that they have had ex- 
perience and received training. 

Contrast with these w r hat the Y. M. C. A. offers in 
its special school to fit officers for its work. It em- 
phasizes the community value of games and especially 
provides courses in construction, location and equip- 
ment of gymnasia; object, organization, administra- 
tion and relation of physical work to other Y. M. C. 
A. work; organization, grading of classes and con- 
duct of classes ; qualifications, duties and relationship 
of physical directors ; and the philosophy of physical 
training, school gymnastics and public playgrounds. 
There is a course on amateur athletics which includes 
organization and management and a course on the 
history and literature of physical training. In addi- 
tion to the work in theory, thorough practice and 
training are given in playing games. The educa- 
tional and moral values of athletics for various 
groups, as boys, workingmen, students, etc., are em- 
phasized. Group contests are given special attention 
in both theory and practice. A course has also been 



INSTRUCTORS— THEIR RESPONSIBILITY 57 

added on social service. The work of this school is 
given in detail in the hope that the Y. W. C. A., settle- 
ment associations or other public-spirited organiza- 
tions will see the necessity of establishing a school for 
social workers of cities, which will include physical 
training along similar broad fundamental lines. 

Summer Schools. — A number of summer schools 
have departments of physical education which offer in- 
struction in athletics. The following course was given 
by the writers in a six-week period: Meaning and 
values of games ; principles of coaching ; basketball — 
theory and team work; instructing green squads; 
contests — their place and management; hockey — ■ 
theory and team work; indoor baseball — theory and 
team work ; some problems and conditions in athletics 
for women. In addition, arrangement was made for 
demonstration periods when the different games were 
taught according to the theory given. The students 
were also taught to play. Lectures on track and field 
events and practice were given and additional work 
offered to pupils who were interested in special 
games. Examinations in both theory and practice 
were required before the student received any credit. 

Another summer school offers two courses, one on 
the " Principles of Physical Education " and the 
other on " The Theory of Play." Practice is also 
given in track and field events, baseball and basket- 
ball. The short course makes it impossible to give 
much work and is primarily intended for public 
school teachers. 

In a third school the work is arranged so that it 



58 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 

may cover four summers. It is similar to that previ- 
ously described under B. A distinction not em- 
phasized in other summer schools is the following : 

" Although many of the courses may be taken in 
common by men and women, it has been deemed advis- 
able to limit the heavier forms of gymnastics, athletics 
and antagonistic exercises to men, while the lighter 
calisthenics, Delsarte exercises, elementary apparatus 
work and esthetic dancing are adapted and confined 
largely to women. Where men are expected to in- 
struct women, and women are called upon to teach men 
and boys, as is the case in many of the State Normal 
Schools, a judicious selection from both programs will be 
allowed in order to meet the requirements of the 
teacher's position." 

The difficulty with this arrangement is that many 
do not know whether they are to teach boys or girls 
until they obtain their positions and thus may not 
elect theory of athletics and practice. Later, not- 
withstanding this, they take charge of athletics and 
antagonistic exercises." 



u 



In a fourth summer school there is a department of 
physical training which offers only such limited work 
as " special instruction in the theory and practice 
of basketball and hockey." 

There are other schools of physical education 
which do not provide any work whatever in athletics. 
One was organized a half-century ago, and has a 
long list of graduates and pupils who hold high 
school positions where athletics are permitted. 

Defects in Methods of Schools of Physical Edu- 
cation. — The absence (1) of graded, systematic and 



INSTRUCTORS— THEIR RESPONSIBILITY 59 

consecutive work throughout the year; (2) of funda- 
mental lecture work on the history, theory, place and 
influence of athletics ; (3) of discussions of the organ- 
ization and administration of athletics and their rela- 
tion to the school plan; (4) of all reference to play- 
grounds, recreation centers and other social move- 
ments, which employ trained teachers; and (5) of 
special consideration of the problems which athletics 
for women present, shows clearly that these schools 
are not meeting the demand for trained instructors. 

Little or no attempt is made to train pupils to be- 
come good officials, although every instructor has to 
officiate at contests. Officials, quite as much as in- 
structors, have not only a responsibility to those who 
engage them but also to the community for making 
good or bad citizens, according to the standard they 
set and to the fairness of their decisions. Women 
are not used to positions requiring instantaneous 
judgment based on accuracy of observation and fair- 
ness, and many blunders costly to the cause of good 
sport result. 

Schools of physical education should be given full 
credit for valuable training in such subjects as physi- 
ology, anatomy, hygiene, psychology, anthropometry 
and pedagogy — which are intended to and do make 
the pupil intelligent upon the care and use of the 
body. But this special training may fall on barren 
soil, owing to the varying entrance requirements. 
The least that can be required is a high-school train- 
ing or its " equivalent." While most schools insist 
upon this, the substitutions permitted under the head 



60 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 

of " equivalents " do not always constitute a general 
education on which specialization can be well founded. 
The greatest defect of such schools, however, is the 
almost total absence of any realization of their respon- 
sibility to teach athletics as a branch of education and 
of any emphasis upon their value as a means of social 
education. Many teachers are called to settlements, 
social education institutions, playgrounds, etc., with 
little or no idea of their aim or methods or of their 
place in the social structure. Sociology is in no case 
included among the subjects of training. It is a 
serious question whether a special effort should not 
be made to include these when so many women are 
entering this field, who ordinarily have not a fund of 
general information which enables them to take a 
broader view of their work than as a means to an end. 
It is for this, among other reasons, that so many 
instructors live within a narrow horizon and lose 
their perspective and the relation of their work to 
citizenship and progress. One leader in physical 
education says : x 



" I find few among my professional brethren who have 
any far-reaching interest beyond their specialty, few 
whose hearts throb in unison with the great movements 
of the time. I see men and women whose minds only 
revolve around drills and exercises, lessons and exhibi- 
tions, visits of the superintendent and rules of the board 
of education, the return of payday, the possibility of 
advancement, the victory of yesterday and the contest 
of to-morrow." 

1 Jakob Bolin, " Mind and Body," Vol. XIV, p. 234. 



INSTRUCTORS— THEIR RESPONSIBILITY 61 

So long as these conditions exist, schools of physi- 
cal education constitute the greatest obstruction to 
the adoption of athletics as a part of the educational 
system and to raising its standard above the plane 
of commercial competition. It is not a question of 
their disapproving of or restraining athletics, for 
beyond all power of their control, it is settled that 
girls will play — just as settled as that women will 
work. The question is, will these schools become an 
intelligent force in creating and maintaining a high 
standard of athletics or will they belittle, exclude or 
ignore them and confuse the public mind as to their 
value, because they are not strong enough to meet the 
problem of their danger? 

Schools of Elocution and Oratory. — While these 
do not ordinarily profess to train instructors in ath- 
letics, as a matter of fact many of their graduates 
are required to take charge of them in conjunction 
with other subjects of instruction. Furthermore, in 
many private schools their training is considered suffi- 
cient, and their graduates are unhesitatingly accepted 
as teachers. In reality they offer no instruction what- 
ever in either the theory or practice of athletics. 
Furthermore, their training is opposed to social edu- 
cation. Oratory, Delsarte, vocal expression, dra- 
matics, music, reading, etc., and the emphasis placed 
upon presence, grace, poise, are intensely individual- 
istic. Valuable as these are, they do not train teach- 
ers to develop group qualities in players. Even when 
courses are offered in physiology, anatomy and psy- 
chology, they retain their individualistic stamp, as 



62 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 

where psychology is made to mean chiefly " psychic 
development " or " soul expression." 

Our purpose is not to criticise these schools, but 
merely to point out the necessity for avoiding a con- 
fusion of teachers of " physical culture," trained in 
schools of elocution, with instructors of physical edu- 
cation who are capable of teaching gymnastics and 
athletics as a means of social education and as a basis 
for health and recreation. 

Normal Schools. — A number of normal schools, 
including some of the best in the country, have prac- 
tice classes and frequently maintain teams which play 
match games with other schools. But none of those 
answering our inquiry maintains courses of instruc- 
tion in athletics. Basketball is usually the one game 
played, though hockey is growing in favor. Gradu- 
ates of these normal schools are constantly required 
to teach " main subjects," as history, English, etc., 
and to take charge of basketball and other games. 

Universities and Colleges. — These also supply 
teachers, but few maintain courses in athletics. One 
of the best offers a course in physical education which 
includes personal hygiene, school hygiene, gymnastics 
(several courses), anatomy, anthropometry, diag- 
nosis, corrective exercises, history of physical educa- 
tion and kinesiology. Notwithstanding this broad 
outline, only practice is offered in athletics and funda- 
mental theory work is, as usual, absent. Ordinarily 
the course in colleges gives a working knowledge of 
games, though they are in all cases elective while 
gymnastics are required. So the student may under- 



INSTRUCTORS— THEIR RESPONSIBILITY 63 

take to give instruction upon the representation of so 
many years of " gymnasium work " without having 
had any practice in athletics or any theory, or lec- 
tures on such subjects as anatomy, physiology or 
hygiene. 

It is a common occurrence for universities to re- 
ceive a request like this from its students or gradu- 
ates : " A good position has been offered me to teach 

history and English in X high school, but I have 

to teach physical culture too. Can you send me good 
books on the subject or make suggestions? I wish 
now I had taken some athletics while in college." The 
college can do much to raise the standard by refus- 
ing to recommend its untrained students for teachers' 
positions. 

Sometimes colleges undertake to add physical edu- 
cation departments without understanding the situa- 
tion. One Southern college for women makes this 
announcement : 

" With the growing interest in out-of-door sports 
throughout the country there has come an increasing de- 
mand for trained teachers of athletics. It is our pur- 
pose to prepare teachers to intelligently direct this 
department/ ' 

Then follows an outline of a two years' course, con- 
sisting entirely of gymnastics with this one provision 
for athletics: 

" Students desiring this certificate must have one year 
of physiology and hygiene and two seasons' work on the 
hockey team. In addition all the students are or- 



64 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 

ganized into an athletic league having for its object 
the control of the sports." 



Employing Schools. — It is undoubtedly true that 
the present standard of athletics is, in a large meas- 
ure, due to the foresight and conservative atti- 
tude of some of the institutions that train teachers, 
and some have shown much courage in preventing un- 
qualified persons from entering the profession. But 
this is not true of all and should not relieve the em- 
ploying school of its responsibility. It has in too many 
instances been content to rely upon the reputation of 
the training school and to assume that having a 
graduate or pupil of this or that school left nothing 
more to be desired. The employing school can assist 
in maintaining high standards in the following ways : 
Before engaging an instructor, it should know fully 
what her training has been, see her credentials and 
know personally that she is what she is represented to 
be. In order to select teachers intelligently, heads of 
employing schools need to know the requirements of 
the position and not ignore or belittle the work as is 
sometimes done. For instance, from private schools 
frequently come such requests as this : " Can you send 
me some one qualified to teach mathematics and his- 
tory, stating her experience? She must also take 
charge of basketball." 

Increased care in the selection of teachers is also 
made necessary on the part of the employing school 
because deceptions are sometimes practised upon 
them. In their competitive desire to place teachers, 



INSTRUCTORS— THEIR RESPONSIBILITY 65 

some training schools are likely to recommend pupils, 
thinking they are more capable than they really are. 
Again, pupils in their desire to obtain positions are 
unsportsmanlike in trading upon the names of well- 
known instructors and training schools, and thus 
hurt those who really desire to place only competent 
teachers. A person who has made charts or kept 
class lists or schedules of swimming or has recorded 
measurements taken by prominent instructors will 
advertise herself in school catalogues and letters as 

" assistant to Dr. X " or as assistant in " School 

A ," when she knows nothing of the principles 

for which they stand and was not selected by them be- 
cause of general proficiency. Others attend athletic 
practices on the note-book plan but do not hesitate to 
say they have " taken the work." Such pupils have 
missed the training which develops modesty and gives 
a sense of proportionate value. This dishonesty may 
be prevented by employing schools exercising more 
care and by instructors and schools combining to 
raise the standard and punish misrepresentation. It 
is true misrepresentations occur in all lines of teach- 
ing, but the person who obtains a position in athletics 
in this way is hardly one to use games to bring out 
the noblest qualities. 

Summary. — In a word, then, if women are to re- 
ceive social education, by means of athletics as a part 
of their general training, the prime essentials are well- 
qualified instructors who have received broad, funda- 
mental training in schools of physical education ; a 
higher standard of athletics maintained by these 



66 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 

schools ; and greater care and honesty in recommenda- 
tions as well as greater intelligence and discrimina- 
tion on the part of employing schools. Without 
these, athletics may never rise above competitive 
games played to win — where and how players choose. 



PART II 
PRESENT CONDITIONS 



CHAPTER IV 

ATHLETICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

HIGH SCHOOLS 

The increasing participation of high school girls 
in basketball and other athletic games led the writers 
to make an inquiry into the condition in high schools. 
Owing to the lack of supervision by school authorities 
and the great variations in the control of athletics, 
it was difficult to obtain a satisfactory and representa- 
tive view of the situation. The material gathered is 
therefore presented quite as much in the hope of 
stimulating further investigations as for the purpose 
of urging the adoption of a more uniform system of 
control. 

A discouraging number of schools provide athletics ft 
for boys but none for girls. Among the others two | 
extremes are apparent. In the first group, there 
is an absence of school regulation, no object other 
than to win games, and the whole matter is in the 
hands of the girls or of the " professional coach." 
In the second, all use of the school gymnasia or of 
the school name by teams is forbidden. Schools out- 
side of these two groups adopt various plans, as for 
instance that of placing athletics under the super- 
vision of an outside organization such as a public 

CO 



II 



70 PRESENT CONDITIONS 

school athletic league, or permitting pupils to practise 
wherever they can find a place and to maintain teams 
under the school name. Wide variations in control 
are found sometimes in cities where the schools them- 
selves are all under one management. 

Conditions in Schools. — Nowhere else are to be 
found such contrasts, lack of system and absence of 
intelligent supervision as in high schools. This is 
best shown by some of the answers to our inquiries : 

" The girls who play basketball are formed into an 
athletic association. The school asked me to take 
charge of the games, which I did. I found that I had 
no official position, the school no power, and that the 
girls had entire control. They practised in an armory 
twice each week, coaching themselves or paying a man 
to come in for extra practices. They averaged one com- 
petitive game each week with other teams, during the 
season. There were no examinations made of the girls 
and they played at all times and would not submit to 
any withdrawal from contests. The permission to play 
games and the challenges passed through the principal's 
hands, but there was no restriction, and no teacher was 
required to attend the games, although the girls made 
journeys frequently to other towns to play high school 
teams. They would start off attended by groups of 
boys and often return late at night. 

" The games were always public and many were 
played in the evening. Any one who paid for his ticket 
could attend. We frequently played double headers — 
the girls' teams would play one half, then the boys' team 
one half, etc. If both the boys' team and the girls' 
team from the same town won, they took all the gate 
receipts, otherwise it was divided. In this way the 
teams covered expenses and divided the surplus if there 
was any. The game was usually followed by a dance 
at one of the men's clubs or in the hall where the games 



ATHLETICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 71 

were played. If in the hall, the men in the audience 
indiscriminately joined in the dance. These games 
were characterized by much unfairness and scrapping. 
Coaches ran up and down the side lines giving instruc- 
tions, roughness was unchecked, and the players boasted 
of their ability to trip players and not be seen owing to 
their baggy suits, or afterwards described mean tricks 
that had won the game." 

' We have no department nor gymnasium, but the girls 
play basketball, though not in the name of the school/' 

' We have no gymnasium or instructor, but the girls 
have a basketball team, which is partly regulated/' 

' The captain and girls have charge of basketball 
and use the gymnasium twice each week. The school 
has nothing to do with the matter. The girls belong to 
an inter-school athletic league which runs the contests/' 

" The manager of the debating society has charge of 
the games." 

' The county league arranges all details of contests, 
players, etc." 

So far as it is possible to make any general state- 
ment summarizing the conditions, the following seems 
to be fair : 

The instructors were mostly " coaches," engaged 
by the girls to win games, and were often without aca- 
demic or special training. Where instructors also 
taught other subjects, they were often untrained in 
athletics or did not take them seriously. Where mem- 
bers of the faculty were placed on executive commit- 
tees and boards of control of county and inter- 
scholastic leagues, they frequently had no general or 
technical knowledge of athletics, and lacking a veto 



72 PRESENT CONDITIONS 

power had little authority. Athletics had little or no 
part in the educational system, and were rather looked 
upon as exerting a harmful influence upon studies 
and the general intellectual work of the school. In 
many schools there was not only no relation between 
gymnastics and athletics, but in some there was con- 
stant disagreement between the gymnastic instructor 
and " coach " as to who should use the gymnasium. 
Eligibility to teams was in a few instances based upon 
academic standing, while in others this was true only 
in theory. In most cases, contests being outside the 
control of the school, academic standing was not 
considered at all. General ignorance existed on the 
part of school authorities and parents as to what was 
going on. The officials were chiefly men, and with 
few exceptions the games were open to everybody. 
Many favored pay games and as a rule prizes were 
offered. The captain, " coach " or girls selected 
the teams, and physical examinations and tests played 
no part in this selection. Where leagues and associa- 
tions existed they were primarily for the purpose of 
increasing and managing competition and for raising 
money. 

The returns from the various high schools showed 
a general neglect of such fundamental matters as 
preliminary gymnastics, relation of athletics to diet, 
rest and study, limitations of practice periods, and of 
excessive physical exertion and high nervous tension. 
In some instances from five to twenty match games 
were played during a season, interfering with study 
and causing over-exertion on the part of the girls. 



ATHLETICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 73 

The increase in professionalism was clearly indicated. 
This is detrimental to moral growth, since no standard 
is set before the players except to win by fair or foul 
means ; and to refinement of feeling, because of the 
bad spirit engendered. Furthermore, in some schools 
the monopoly of the gymnasium by the teams prevents 
the mass of girls from receiving adequate physical 
training. 

Undoubtedly, even under these conditions, consider- 
able experience is gained, but it may be bad or good, 
and in either case it is at great physical cost. It is 
not infrequent to see young girls collapse in these 
high school contests. A typical list of refreshments 
eaten between the halves of a hard game or immedi- 
ately afterward includes pie, cream puffs, chocolate 
eclairs or charlotte russe, varied with peanuts and 
popcorn; and a championship contest is often fol- 
lowed immediately by hours of dancing. High school 
contests are also conspicuous for the bad spirit shown. 
Attacks upon officials, wrangling of teams, calling of 
names, bitter denunciatory remarks about opponents, 
intentional roughness, fault-finding, " rattling of 
players " by school girl or boy audiences, and per- 
sonal characterizations are common in games where 
players alone are in control. 

There are, of course, many schools where such con- 
ditions do not prevail, but this is a fair statement of 
general conditions, and is indicative of the growing 
tendency, especially in schools of the Middle West. 
Wherever these conditions did not prevail, we found 
not only that the school authorities had a voice in the 



74 PRESENT CONDITIONS 

management of contests but that they maintained 
some supervision of practice periods. 

The responsibility for these conditions rests prima- 
rily with school authorities, but also with parents who 
do not insist upon proper regulations. That many 
of the former recognize the need for improvement the 
following replies show: 

' This year I made two stands — first, that of the 
requirement of a physician's certificate for basketball 
practice, and second, the prohibition of practising or 
playing during menstrual periods. These two points 
are not insisted upon in all our high schools and I have 
seen some girls collapse on field and suffer illness of 
days from lack of oversight on part of coach, physician 
or mother. Lack of observance of a girl's condition is 
sometimes amazing. I believe that every coach should 
be merely assistant to the physical training instructor — 
the latter having full charge of every phase of work. 
This for development of physical, moral, social qualities 
of girls." 

" I regret to say that no provision at all is as yet 
made for the girls. As regards teams and match games 
among girls, I am fully convinced that great care is 
necessary in the selection of girls for such teams and 
as to procedure in such contests. In my judgment no 
match games between girls of different schools should 
be permitted. I should encourage games between girls 
of the same school; I would restrict admission to invita- 
tion. We hope that we can have physical training for 
our girls in the near future under a competent in- 
structor.' ' 

" Organized games in the open air take the place of 
formal gymnastics for one half of the school year. 
These games are not optional but are a part of the 
regular school work and taught by the physical training 
teachers. Girls are not asked whether or not they wish 



ATHLETICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 75 

to play; all the twenty-four hundred play except the 
very few excused for good reasons by a physician. As 
far as can be arranged, each class has two forty-five- 
minute periods weekly during school hours for this pur- 
pose in the last ten weeks in the spring and the first ten 
weeks in the fall. Four teachers and four classes may 
be seen in the yard during most of every day." 

" We have considered the question of athletics for 
girls and passed the following: ' Resolved that all inter- 
scholastic competition is unwise under the present condi- 
tions; that the same results can be obtained by inter- 
class games ; thus avoiding all the adverse conditions and 
results of inter-school contests/ We also took a stand 
against all publicity/' 

Public School Athletic Leagues. — A movement 
which is regarded as a solution of some of these prob- 
lems takes the form of public school athletic leagues. 
A girls' branch was started in New York City in 
1905, and is maintained by a group of public-spirited 
citizens along the following lines : 

" First — That it has to do with the pupil's free time 
rather than with school activities. Second — That, 
in the nature of the case, participation must be wholly 
voluntary. Third — That it might be possible to co- 
operate more perfectly with existing athletic organiza- 
tions, both in and outside of this school system, than 
would be possible if the organization were official. 
Fourth — For financial reasons, for while public senti- 
ment and precedents with reference to the support of 
athletics remain as they are, it would hardly be possible 
to secure from the Board of Education, nor would it be 
justified in appropriating the very considerable sums 
needed for the development of these athletics. If the 
League were officially under the Board of Education it 
would not be possible to solicit funds for the support of 



76 PRESENT CONDITIONS 

the League, charge admission to games, give prizes hav- 
ing intrinsic value and the like. Fifth — It seems neces- 
sary that there be an organization in addition to those 
which are carried on by pupils themselves, because the 
financial and administrative problems in such a city as 
New York are altogether too great to be handled success- 
fully by the comparatively inexperienced and rapidly 
changing group of pupils. This must be done by a body 
having the financial confidence of the business men of the 
community, and of the school authorities themselves. " % 

The aim is stated as follows: 

" To devise and promote athletics for girls which will 
make for health, stamina and grace in the elementary, 
high and collegiate departments of public educational 
institutions of the City. To encourage the development 
of forms of exercise and recreation suited to the needs 
of the mass of schoolgirls, and which will secure for 
them the benefits and avoid the evils which have been 
developed in connection with athletics for men. The 
general principle followed by the Girls' Branch is to 
develop work within the school rather than competition 
between schools, and to select events in which teams 
rather than individuals may compete.' ' 2 

Active membership is based on subscriptions and 
honorary members are elected. Membership confers 
no ownership in any property. The management is 
vested in a board of directors, elected at the annual 
meeting of members, and consists of not more than 
forty-eight persons. An executive committee has all 
the powers of the board of directors when the latter 
is not in session. The president may appoint a game 
committee to consist of three directors which shall 
have charge of all games authorized by the League. 

1 Report of Board of Education, 1906. 

2 Report of New York City Athletic League, 1906. 



ATHLETICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 77 

It is the policy to provide trophies for which the vari- 
ous classes compete. These consist of bronze plaques, 
silver cups, etc. Some of the girls are organized into 
various leagues which contest for these prizes, as do 
also the various classes. A League pin also is to be 
presented to each public school girl who is able to pass 
certain prescribed qualifications. 

For admission to classes every girl must have at- 
tended school for one month and must have received 
the mark of " B " for the month previous and " A " 
in effort and deportment. One of the interesting and 
valuable features is the method of training teachers. 
The Girls' Branch offers : 

" A course of dancing and athletics, free of expense, 
to public school teachers, who will give in return one 
lesson per week to girls of the schools from which the 
teachers severally come. It is a remarkable fact, and 
one significant of the benefit and pleasure derived by 
them from this training, that one hundred and seventy- 
five teachers with endless demands upon their strength 
and time should voluntarily elect to attend these free 
classes, and give in return an equal amount of time to 
the instruction of girls of their own schools, thus giving 
up two afternoons each week to the work." 

The Public School Athletic League of Cleveland, 
which is still limited to boys, differs in its organization 
in that it is within the school and is controlled by a 
Senate which consists of the supervisor of physical 
training, two members from the faculty of each high 
school, and one representative from each elementary 
school. The high school members are appointed by 
the principal of the school and may be retired by him. 



78 PRESENT CONDITIONS 

The funds are raised by a finance committee appointed 
by the chairman of the Senate. Membership in the 
League consists of such athletic organizations of the 
public schools as are approved by the principals con- 
cerned. Honorary members are elected and all per- 
sons contributing over $50 become patrons. 

Those interested in the recreative features of ath- 
letics will find ample cause for congratulation in this 
movement. On the other hand, those interested in 
social education cannot but be disappointed. We 
have been unable to find that much emphasis is placed 
upon the educational value of athletics for girls, or 
that those interested in the movement are endeavoring 
to prepare them to meet the increasing social and 
economic demands which will be made later after 
they leave school. The plan of excluding from classes 
pupils not having an " A " or " B " standing, espe- 
cially in deportment, may shut out the ones most in 
need of them. There is a tendency, made necessary to 
some extent by the limited space and great numbers of 
pupils, to minimize the value of organized games and 
to emphasize dancing and class athletics. The com- 
petitive element and prizes are also conspicuous. 

At this time, when the interest in athletics needs 
stimulation it is perhaps necessary that a group of in- 
terested citizens should support a work which doubt- 
less could not otherwise have been started. But we 
believe that the principle should not be lost sight of 
that the control and support of this branch of work 
should rest with the school system. The number of 
pupils is so great and the educational possibilities of 



ATHLETICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 79 

games so broad that athletics should be included as 
a part of the educational system and be supported 
by taxation or by gifts directly to school authorities. 
Their social educational value is so fundamental that 
their continuance should not depend upon a philan- 
thropy which must vary with stock markets and busi- 
ness depressions and commercial fluctuations. As the 
best exponents of democracy, games should be in- 
corporated in our most democratic of institutions — 
the public school. 

Country School Athletic Leagues. — The public 
school athletic movement is not confined to city 
schools. In one state it has been extended to small 
towns and country districts. One of the normal 
schools started the movement, and with the co-opera- 
tion of the district school commissioner conferences 
are held which are attended by children and parents. 
It is an all-day affair and practical demonstrations 
of school work are given, including athletics in which 
the girls participate. Besides fostering clean ath- 
letics, it brings the schools together at least once each 
year in a field day and picnic. At the second field 
day held by this League there were present 1400 
school children, 200 high and normal school children 
and about 1400 adults. Girls as well as boys took 
part in the contests. Owing to the expense of para- 
phernalia, no very wide use has been made of the 
highly organized games, but they are to be intro- 
duced. 1 

1 Scudder: " Field Day and Play Picnic for Country Children," 
pamph., 53 pp. 



80 PRESENT CONDITIONS 

If the use of athletic games can be widely extended 
in villages and small towns by some such movement 
within the schools it will prove a strong socializing 
influence, brightening farm and village life, and 
training school children in many of the qualities neces- 
sary for group work and useful citizenship. Nowhere 
are the training and play spirit more needed than 
among girls in small towns and rural districts. While 
they live more out of doors and under better condi- 
tions for health than the children of cities, these very 
things tend to make parents feel that play is super- 
fluous. Parents in rural districts are especially out 
of sympathy with play, and think if a girl is strong 
enough to work it is enough. But the country girl 
is often unevenly developed, and sometimes organic- 
ally weak while she is muscularly strong, and more- 
over needs the exhilaration, interest and joy of games. 
She is perhaps even more individualistic than the city 
girl and more in need of group training. Games in 
small towns and rural districts now possess little 
variety and so give little opportunity for team work. 
Both the girl and her parents need play, and organ- 
ized games and country school leagues are taking a 
long step in the right direction. 

Suggestions for Improvement. — On the whole, 
notwithstanding these and other efforts to improve 
present conditions, athletics in high schools undoubt- 
edly present serious dangers. There is the greatest 
need for regulation, supervision and the relating of 
athletics to other school work, etc. We do not be- 
lieve this will be brought about until a thorough in- 



ATHLETICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 81 

vestigation is made of the subject, including a careful 
and impartial study by a well-trained investigator 
of existing methods, rules, requirements, conditions, 
instruction, practice, competitive games, surround- 
ings, organization, control, etc. If the results of such 
an investigation could be laid before a conference 
representing the various boards of education some 
uniform standard and regulations might be adopted. 

In the meantime it may be far wiser to abolish en- 
tirely or greatly restrict all athletic competition by 
girls in high schools unless the following minimum 
requirements are made: All practices and contests to 
be under the control of a trained instructor who is 
approved, paid by and responsible to the school au- 
thorities; no girl permitted to play basketball with- 
out a physical examination and unless she has had 
some previous setting up gymnastic work; abolition 
of pay games and professionalism ; and a wise restric- 
tion of the number of interscholastic contests. 

No one wishes to see athletics for girls degenerate 
into " win at any cost " contests, and there is yet time 
to give them their rightful place in the high school 
educational system, where they are greatly needed for 
training in citizenship, if the school authorities and 
parents will but take the matter in hand. 

PRIVATE SCHOOLS 

Private schools present a most important phase of 
the question, as their pupils have less opportunity for 
social education than girls in public schools. They 
are freiquently spoiled and petted at home or have 



82 PRESENT CONDITIONS 

been so pampered with luxury that their point of view 
is largely individualistic. The opportunity and re- 
sponsibility of the private boarding school is greater 
than that of the public school, for it has the entire 
training at an impressionable age. 

Whatever its size and purpose, wherever its loca- 
tion and no matter how varying its methods, the func- 
tion of the private school in the educational system is 
the same from the community's point of view, namely, 
the development of each girl as an individual factor, 
as a social factor, and increasingly as an industrial 
factor in our civilization; and the development of the 
social as well as individual conscience. That some of 
them fail so to regard their function or fail in its 
accomplishment does not in any way change their 
responsibility to the community which makes this de- 
mand. The school which considers that it has no 
obligation other than to the pupil and her parents and 
that the community has no interest in its methods or 
" business with its affairs " is not discharging its in- 
debtedness to the same community which provides it 
with facilities, protection and a hundred things which 
make its material success possible. 

Conditions in Schools. — What part have athletics 
in meeting this opportunity and responsibility? We 
believe that the conditions found in nearly two hun- 
dred schools are fairly typical, since our study has 
covered every kind of school in nearly every state, in- 
cluding the seminary, day school, boarding school, 
academy, co-educational institution, small college con- 
ducted on boarding school principles, out of town 



ATHLETICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 83 

school with broad spacious grounds, and the city 
school which uses its roof as a playground. That 
athletics have an increasingly important place in the 
school life is shown by three things : increased athletic 
facilities ; wide adoption of games for recreation ; and 
the beginning of a belief in their educational value. 
Fully ten per cent, stated that they were building new 
gymnasia, acquiring grounds for games or that they 
had made arrangements to use other gymnasia. Sixty 
per cent, had some kind of an indoor place for work, 
but unfortunately not all made provision for games. 
Indoor tennis, ring hockey, indoor baseball, long- 
ball, captain-ball, etc., are therefore unfortunately 
omitted. 

The grounds of many schools afford good facilities 
for such games. Seventy per cent, make provision 
for games out of doors and the remainder insist upon 
walks or individual sports ; seventy per cent, have ten- 
nis courts; 65.7 per cent, basketball courts; 23.5 per 
cent, hockey fields ; and nine per cent, provided for 
baseball. The athletic field is also gaining a place, 
and fifteen per cent, have real fields and field days. 
One city school utilizes its roof and others maintain 
summer camps. 

When the facilities have been described, practically 
all has been said about athletics in many of the 
schools. There are exceptions, but the great ma- 
jority think they have done enough when they make 
it possible for girls to play. The prevailing senti- 
ment is that the function of games is to provide 
recreation. This is, however, a distinct gain within 



84 PRESENT CONDITIONS 

the last decade, for previously the majority did not 
even consider games and much less " athletics ?:> as 
deserving mention in their announcements. A few of 
the typical announcements, taken at random from the 
catalogues, show how very limited the idea of athletic 
training still is : 

" The object is to develop strength, elasticity, proper 
breathing and correct position in walking and standing, 
thus giving natural development, ease and grace of 
manner. " 

" We mean by physical culture the development and 
refinement of the entire physical person through cultivat- 
ing it to express the purpose and emotions of the soul." 

" Our system aims at co-ordination, control and sym- 
metry rather than over-development, provides for those 
who wish to build up their physique and to keep in 
healthful condition, and furnishes a series of esthetic 
movements as a means of obtaining poise, grace and 
suppleness." 

A second group puts more emphasis upon the 
maintenance of health : 

" Our effort is to give enough physical culture to 
maintain an excellent average of health." 

" The object in physical training is all-round develop- 
ment. In order to work intelligently and avoid injury 
from improper exercise a careful examination is made at 
the beginning of the year by the medical examiner. 
The results with the various strength tests determine the 
character and amount of exercise." 

" We have a teacher, not to emphasize the athletic 
side, but to prevent excess by her presence and influence. 
We also recognize the importance of health and a happy 



ATHLETICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 85 

life and believe it is the foundation for the best intel- 
lectual work and for strong character development." 

In but one case was physical training decried as 
" unladylike," but others made it clear that it was 
merely tolerated and that a great deal of ignorance 
exists as to its value even for purposes of recreation. 
Some of our correspondents thought because our in- 
quiries emphasized athletics that we were looking for 
a school or sanitarium for a delicate girl, not realizing 
that athletics should be a normal part of her training. 
Typical of the replies of this discouraging group are 
the following: 

" Much injury is done girls by gymnasium work in 
groups. During this developing and formative period 
of a girl's life when her strength is at its lowest ebb, 
the general course of work should be entirely individual. 
Another means of injury is this — the stimulation and 
competition natural in a group of girls incites the less 
strong to overdo in order to stand on a par with the 
others or to 6X061/' 

" I should regard measurements as unwise and need- 
less in the case of any girl whose health admits of 
serious study. The place is really a school, but not in 
any sense a sanitarium." 

" Encouragement is given to athletics so long as they 
do not interfere with school work." 

" Pupils come primarily for work and no work time 
can be devoted to games. " 

Some of the schools make a clear distinction be- 
tween gymnastics and athletics, the former being re- 
quired and under supervision while the latter are 



86 PRESENT CONDITIONS 

not. One instructor writes: "Gymnastic drills are 
given under competent instructors and the gym- 
nasium is open at other times for the recreation of 
students." In co-educational private schools the fa- 
cilities for athletics are frequently better, because the 
demands made by boys lead to some recognition of 
the needs of girls. But even here girls have less op- 
portunity. One school announcement says : " Ath- 
letics receive proper attention but are not carried to 
excess. Young men are taught to be manly and f air." 
But no mention whatever is made of their ethical or 
other value for girls. Another announcement makes 
this rather astounding statement : " He who educates 
a boy educates an individual merely, whilst he who 
educates a girl educates a family." 

Such statements as the following show that the 
belief in the educational value of games is slowly 
growing : 

" Baseball, basketball, captain-ball and tennis are 
popular. They teach quickness and loyalty to each 
other, fairness and unselfishness and earnestness of 
purpose and desire to do one's best for one's self and 
team." 

1 We believe that physical culture should be adapted 
to the development of girls and should train the mind 
to quick decision, alertness and poise, as well as give 
strength and grace to the body." 

' The aim of the school is to develop the girl ethi- 
cally, mentally and physically; to teach her moderation, 
self-control and poise, to point her to the perspective 
.which determines relations and responsibilities, to enable 
her to meet situations, to understand life and to live.' , 



ATHLETICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 87 

" It is perfectly possible for a girl who develops most 
in mind and body to develop also in the fine and 
womanly art of being charming/ ' 

On the other hand, we suspect that the schools are 
somewhat hampered in their progress by the attitude 
of parents, as is illustrated by the following state- 
ment : 

1 We did require gymnastics and athletics of all girls, 
but found parents so indifferent and a physician's certif- 
icate for excuse from physical training so easy to obtain 
in spite of good results that we reluctantly gave it up for 
day pupils/' 

Many parents do not recognize play as an essential 
part of childhood, while others are afraid that their 
daughters will be injured. Too often the girls them- 
selves are lazy and are excused on one pretext or an- 
other because they do not like the work. Instead of 
supporting the school, pupils, physician and parents 
together frequently resort to deception to obtain an 
excuse. If parents and physician would make care- 
ful inquiry about the work, insist upon a high stand- 
ard where poor work is given and support the school 
in upholding a good system, much more could be ac- 
complished both for health and character. 

Our study shows two great defects : First, that while 
girls have opportunity for play they are not taught 
as is seen by the qualification and attitude of instruct- 
ors ; and second, that the use of games is limited to 
recreation, as is seen in the methods of instruction. 

Instructors. — The first defect is clearly shown by 
the requirements for teachers. It has been difficult to 



88 PRESENT CONDITIONS 

ascertain the training of instructors. In some cases 
the replies have been full ; in others we have been as- 
sured that the teachers " are specially trained," while 
no details appeared in the catalogue or letter. Or- 
dinarily in the private school catalogue the name of 
the physical training instructor appears near the foot 
of the list and often without the history which accom- 
panies in full other teachers. To the lay mind the 
school announcement may also be misleading. It 
understands that training in Latin means Latin, and 
mathematics means mathematics, but " physical cul- 
ture " may mean Delsarte, oratory, musical or vocal 
expression, gymnastics, athletics or corrective work, 
but not necessarily any one or all of these. 

We found that in fifty-seven per cent, of the schools 
the instructor had attended schools of physical train- 
ing; in thirteen per cent., schools of elocution; in 
twelve per cent., seminaries, colleges or similar insti- 
tutions ; and in twenty per cent, no training was 
claimed other than general education. In two the 
faculty and students had joint charge of the work. 

It was found that where there were both basketball 
and baseball, all the instructors had attended a school 
of physical training. Where basketball and hockey 
were played, sixty-one per cent, had attended such 
schools. Where basketball alone was played, forty- 
two per cent, had attended physical training schools ; 
ten per cent., schools of elocution; ten per cent, had 
received only academic training ; and thirty-eight per 
cent, had no training other than general education. 
All of these instructors took charge of the games, al- 



ATHLETICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 89 

though less than half had received training qualifying 
them to do so. 

In twenty-one per cent, of the schools, the instructor 
taught no work other than physical training. In 
thirty-two per cent, she had elocution, dramatics and 
physical culture ; in fourteen per cent., physical train- 
ing and hygiene or physiology and mathematics. In 
the others, history, English, grade work or languages 
were combined with physical training. In twenty- 
four per cent, we were unable to get definite answers 
as to whether the instructor had other duties. One 
reply was, " The instructor is available for any serv- 
ice she may be called upon to render." 

As a number did not answer the question, we be- 
lieve that these percentages are above rather than be- 
low the number of those who have received training. 
It does not always follow that those who claim train- 
ing are better instructors. In one school where the 
instructor had charge of baseball, basketball and 
hockey, she appeared in the catalogue as a graduate 
of a physical training school and also as having at- 
tended a summer school. In the first she had received 
no instruction in athletics and in the second she failed 
in her examinations and could not play one of the 
games that she " coached." 

The chaperon " coach " is still a feature. She sits 
on the lawn by the courts, reading a book and from 
time to time observing that no bad language or dis- 
putes occur, but what does she know of the meaning of 
the game or of team play or of exhilaration or strain? 
Are the girls being educated in fair play or simply 



90 PRESENT CONDITIONS 

finding an outlet for a pett\^, mean spirit? Are they 
playing according to rules or making their own rules? 
Are they gaining in discipline or simply wasting 
energy? One correspondent sent in this definition of 
the supervisor of games : " A person to see that the 
girls have proper clothing and change it properly." 
In physical and moral development w r hat is the relative 
importance of taking a cold or of becoming a sneak 
and a cheat? 

Such a game as basketball, played in sixty-five per 
cent, of the schools, presents such important physical 
and ethical problems that it should not be played by 
girls without competent supervision. It is not en- 
tirely the fault of training schools and of teachers 
that so many positions are filled by untrained per- 
sons. Some private schools furnish such poor facili- 
ties and interfere so much with the work of the in- 
structor that a trained person cannot afford to accept 
the position. One teacher refused to admit girls to 
basketball practice because they were physically unfit. 
They appealed to the principal and she decided that 
they could play. In another instance the principal 
objected to a strict observance of rules and upon a 
protest from the instructor said, " Well, they can get 
some exercise, no matter how they play." Physical 
training is considered so unimportant in some schools 
that the most trivial things are permitted to inter- 
fere with the classes — a thing not tolerated in any 
other department. 

It would be a good thing if private schools would 
abolish the use of the term " physical culture," which 



ATHLETICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 91 

has come to mean almost anything. There are physi- 
cal culture systems, restaurants, furniture and maga- 
zines. Less than one-fifth of the schools designated 
their work as physical training, not one as physical 
education, and the rest called it " physical culture," 
whether it included Delsarte, elocution, reading, 
dramatics, breathing exercises, medical gymnastics, 
athletics or simply walks. 

Methods of Instruction. — The prevailing methods 
of work in many schools are open to much' criticism. 
In a number, an extra charge is made for athletics or 
for the use of paraphernalia. In some the girls are 
able to pay ; in others those who most need the games 
do not choose them, as they are considered a luxury. 
Class distinctions, based on purchasing power, are 
thus raised. It is desirable that schools give the mat- 
ter careful thought and endeavor to bring athletics 
within the regular tuition. The practice of requiring 
pupils to furnish their own basketballs, tennis nets, 
etc., is open to the further objection that a few con- 
trol their use and it is more difficult to supervise the 
work properly when the school does not own the 
outfits. 

A second defect lies in the relation of gymnastics 
and athletics. The latter are almost invariably elect- 
ive and girls are permitted to go into strenuous games 
without any preliminary training. In some cases ath- 
letics are substituted for long periods for all regular 
gymnastics. 

The importance of measurements and of examina- 
tions of heart and lungs, in schools where there are 



92 PRESENT CONDITIONS 

growing girls, cannot be overestimated. Great care is 
now taken that a girl's eyes shall be tested before she 
undertakes study. Why not be equally sure that her 
body is sound before she makes great demands on it? 
Of the schools reporting, fifty-three per cent, take 
" some kind of measurements " ; eight per cent. 
" make examinations " ; five per cent, give " special 
examinations for medical and corrective work " ; four- 
teen per cent, mention no examinations and meas- 
urements ; and twenty per cent, do not make any what- 
ever. No instructor can intelligently work with each 
girl without an intimate knowledge of her condition. 
A few schools realize this and have placed special em- 
phasis upon it, including also blood tests and detailed 
family history. There are several percental charts 
which make it easy to take these measurements, and 
their intelligent use would eliminate many of the evils 
of over- work. 

The average amount of time given to physical ex- 
ercise (if we include walks, upon which much stress is 
placed by many schools) is fair. The prevailing 
plan appears to be to have out-of-door sports and 
work during late fall and early spring and gym- 
nastics during the winter. Very few of the schools 
give systematic daily work. It is usually two or three 
times a week. The time required to be spent out of 
doors averages between one and two hours daily. 
Where gymnastics and athletics are combined, about 
one-third of the time is given to the latter. 

Some of the schools appear to have no system what- 
ever so far as athletics alone are concerned. The 



ATHLETICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 93 

girls play when they wish or when they can find time. 
A few city schools that have no facilities encourage 
their pupils to use private gymnasia. This is ordi- 
narily at the individual's expense, there is no school 
supervision and the girl chooses both the amount and 
kind of work. The school makes careful inquiries into 
the reputation of the gymnasia but does not extend 
them to an intelligent scrutiny of the work offered. 

Athletic Organizations. — Not the least important 
is the increased emphasis that is being placed upon 
the social side of athletics. Formerly no commence- 
ment or class day recognized them in any way. 
The formation of athletic associations, which encour- 
age student self-government, and the introduction of 
field days and athletic events on social programs, are 
now quite common. It is gratifying to find that so 
many schools have these associations. They are help- 
ful in stimulating interest, in developing school pride, 
in taking the girls out of doors and in bringing 
people together in pleasant democratic relations. 
Where some of these results are not accomplished, it 
is because the organization has fallen into the hands 
of a small clique or something else is wrong. Ath- 
letic associations accomplish many other things. In 
some schools they have charge of the sports or fur- 
nish the trophies for contests ; in others, where inter- 
scholastic contests are played, they arrange for the 
contests and entertain the visiting teams. They may 
also arrange for field days, class games, banquets, 
etc. One school association in Colorado is equipping 
a small gymnasium with apparatus for one of the city 



94 PRESENT CONDITIONS 

settlements. The heads of schools speak well of these 
associations, as is indicated by these statements from 
principals : 

' The athletic club stands for the best physically, 
mentally and morally, and by admitting to it girls who 
have proved themselves superior it is a strong influence 
for good." 

" The athletic association maintains the rational and 
sound love for out-of-door sports." 

" They create the love for being out of doors, and 
their moral value is in teaching self-control under defeat 
and in being courteous to visiting winning teams/ ' 

" Healthy competition within the school is encouraged 
and is a matter of school pride and is a strong stimulus 
to increased zeal in preparatory work. Athletic honors 
won by our girls in college are a cause of congratulation, 
implying as they do that examinations have been passed, 
and a good all-around development maintained. Some 
girls who have won such honors have also become presi- 
dent of their class." 

Most of these associations have fees varying from 
fifteen cents per term to five dollars per year. Care 
needs to be exercised that the fees are not prohibitive. 
It is more important that many girls should be mem- 
bers than that a large number of entertainments be 
furnished with the funds. 

Suggestions for Improvement. — From a careful 
study of the situation the following needs appear to 
merit serious consideration: 

1. Increase in the variety of games, and the intro- 
duction of minor games of ball, as long-ball, captain- 
ball, etc., and the wider use of gymnastic games for 
small girls. 



ATHLETICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 95 

2. Use of organized games to a greater extent in- 
doors during the winter. 

3. A closer connection between gymnastics and ath- 
letics, and use of the former as preparatory work for 
organized games. 

4. Introduction of measurements,, tests and exami- 
nations which will make physical training more intelli- 
gent and effective. 

5. Co-operation of parents and physicians in es- 
tablishing good systems of physical training. It is 
a question whether under any circumstances a girl 
excused from all physical training should be per- 
mitted to take full mental work. Some pupils ob- 
tain such excuses in order that they may give more 
time to their studies. The adoption of a rule that 
any girl excused from physical training should take 
only a minimum amount of mental work or less than a 
full year's work would tend to lessen unnecessary 
excuses. 

6. Physical training as a part of the recognized 
educational work and compulsory for at least part of 
the school period and in charge of a competent in- 
structor. 

7. Abolition of athletic privileges and opportuni- 
ties based on purchasing power. 

8. Increase in the number of summer camps main- 
tained by the schools, where girls can be out of doors. 
In these camps, organized sports and recreation 
should have a prominent place. 



CHAPTER V 

ATHLETICS IN UNIVERSITIES AND 
COLLEGES 

In one respect colleges occupy a most important 
position. Secondary schools invariably look to them 
as guides and take pride in having their students 
make a good showing in the college they enter. Their 
athletic standard is therefore largely influenced by 
the conditions prevailing in colleges. Secondary 
schools do not lay much emphasis on social educa- 
tion, and it is therefore in the college that the student 
finds her last chance for character-building through 
athletics before she becomes an active and important 
factor in the world at large. 

A few colleges have measured up to their oppor- 
tunity by creating departments of physical educa- 
tion with faculties similar to those of other depart- 
ments and whose instructors are members of the 
college or university general faculty, w T ith a voice in 
the administration of the entire institution. But in 
far too many of them, the " coach " idea is still preva- 
lent and athletics are encouraged because they fur- 
nish good exercise and maintain health. Athletics 
are not only entirely elective, but in many instances 
no efforts are made to make them attractive. Great 
scholars and good libraries attract to the courses in 

96 



ATHLETICS IN UNIVERSITIES 97 

literature and philosophy, but any one will do to 
teach athletics and any old shed or corner is con- 
sidered good enough for practice. 

When cities were smaller and there were vacant 
lots and yards and wide halls and big rooms in which 
to play, children received more of the much needed 
group training in a natural spontaneous way. But 
now many girls who go to college have been brought 
up without a playground. The absence of the play 
spirit and opportunity for play are bound to make 
a difference in the character and to increase strenuous 
living. Groups of college girls turned loose in the 
gymnasium to play for the first time stand about awk- 
wardly, asking each other if they know a game or what 
to play and usually the experiment is a flat failure 
unless a leader is provided. When girls lose the play 
spirit so young, one cannot expect much from them as 
mothers except a loss of companionship with children 
and an increasing interest in nursemaids and attrac- 
tion toward a business life. 

Small Colleges. — Our problem has been to find out 
what colleges and universities are really doing by 
means of athletics to set a standard and to influence 
public life by turning out good citizens. We find that 
midway between the secondary schools and universities 
are a large number of institutions which give degrees 
and call themselves colleges. In athletics they are 
best classed with private schools. Very few provide 
systematic instruction ; some have no work whatever ; 
while in others it is voluntary play. It is not our 
purpose to discuss conditions in these colleges, other 



98 PRESENT CONDITIONS 

than to note that the conditions here are similar to 
those previously described for private schools. 

Graduate Schools. — Other institutions which neg- 
lect athletics are graduate schools. Graduates are 
rarely required to take physical training, have usu- 
ally acquired the study habit and are not interested in 
athletics, a condition as bad for them as for the com- 
munity. The college as a rule does not make physical 
training sufficiently interesting to attract graduates, 
nor does it adapt it to their needs. 

There remains, then, a large group of private, state 
and city institutions which represent the collegiate 
world, to which the state looks for well-trained citi- 
zens and secondary schools for guidance. In our 
study we found that the usual games were basketball, 
which was played in every college studied ; hockey in 
fifty per cent. ; baseball occasionally ; and minor games 
of ball in a few. In contrast with other institutions 
most of the colleges admitted that it was necessary 
to stimulate interest. This was done in various ways, 
the athletic association being of most help, prizes 
second in importance, competitive games third and 
inter-collegiate contests last. 

Instructors. — The instructor has a much greater 
authority in the training and selection of teams than 
in any other institution. In some there is no appeal 
from her decisions. There is one group, chiefly East- 
ern colleges, in which much of the authority is vested 
in the athletic association, as is shown later. In less 
than five per cent, the instructors were men. In 
twenty per cent, they had had no special training and 



ATHLETICS IN UNIVERSITIES 99 

of the remaining eighty per cent, about five per cent, 
had had only summer school work. While this is a 
good standard, one would hardly expect to find in this 
group men " coaches " who trained girls for outside 
contests ; or instructors who had had no special 
preparation. The tendency is to require academic 
degrees, but less than ten per cent, of the instructors 
stated that collegiate training had been part of their 
preparation. 

The most discouraging features found were the ab- 
sence of an educational use of games and isolation of 
the department of physical education from other col- 
lege activities. This is partly the fault of instruct- 
ors who still continue to emphasize only the health and 
recreative features and who seem to fear the power of 
athletics. The competitive element alarms them, and 
in some instances restriction more than regulation is 
the method of control. 

Inter-Collegiate Contests. — The colleges are di- 
vided on the question. Most of the women's colleges 
in the East and many of the co-educational institu- 
tions do not play outside games but have inter-class 
contests. Occasionally they play a game with their 
preparatory school or with a normal school. In the 
Middle West and West, inter-collegiate contests are 
more common, but the percentage playing them there 
is less than one-half. With the exception of an occa- 
sional ball game, the officials are generally women and 
the audience is admitted by invitation. Very little 
of the evil of pay games exists and the spirit of pro- 
fessionalism seems well under control. This is partly 



100 PRESENT CONDITIONS 

due to the financial support given by the college, 
which is absent in high schools and only partial in 
private schools. The college demonstrates that ath- 
letics can be successfully conducted and large num- 
bers interested by the substitution of inter-class 
games, class prizes and athletic associations for inter- 
scholastic competition and public pay games. 

Systems of Work. — These vary greatly. In 
about ninety per cent, of the colleges, uniform stand- 
ards, with varying degrees of thoroughness, exist. 
Measurements are made and training is based upon 
them. Few allow girls to play basketball without 
heart and lung examinations. Gymnastics are or- 
dinarily required. In one institution a year of gym- 
nastics is required before such games as hockey and 
basketball can be played at all. In another, they can 
play all other games but basketball without having 
had gymnastics. The proportionate amount of ath- 
letics and gymnastics is unequal, being about thirty 
per cent, for the former and seventy per cent, for the 
latter throughout the year. It is not the rule to have 
athletics during the winter. One college requires that 
gymnastics be taken for two years before athletics 
are permitted, then all gymnastics may be omitted. 
In colleges where men and women used the same gym- 
nasium, the arrangement was usually unsatisfactory. 
In one such institution the " only hour available for 
women is the lunch hour between one and two o'clock." 
Then those in charge of the work wonder why women 
are not interested. 

The variety of games which students play does not 



ATHLETICS IN UNIVERSITIES 101 

seem to be carefully regulated. In some instances 
they may elect as many as are offered ; in others two ; 
in still others one " heavy game " ; and in a few they 
are limited to one game. There is much wise super- 
vision of practice periods, the average for basketball 
being forty minutes twice each week. The halves 
average twelve minutes, with ten minutes' rest. Most 
colleges permit extra voluntary practice and this 
privilege does not appear to be abused. The average 
hockey practice is one hour and baseball one and 
one-quarter hours. Only one of the colleges re- 
ported games daily, the rule being twice or three times 
weekly and often but once. But one college appeared 
to be indifferent about times of playing. The others 
required that from two days to one week each month 
be given to rest from physical training. A half-dozen 
insisted upon baths after practice and the majority 
advised or urged it, while many were indifferent or 
left the matter to the girls. 

Colleges, like private schools, have difficulty with 
girls who wish to be excused from all physical train- 
ing, and physicians' excuses play an important part. 
One physician asked to have a student excused on the 
ground that she had trouble with her lungs ! After a 
careful examination this request was refused and work 
prescribed. Later she was put into basketball and at 
the end of the year, upon her physician's own state- 
ment, showed an improvement of fifty per cent. ! 
The college, in order to work for the best interest of 
the girl, needs to convince the family and physician 
of the value of physical education. 



102 PRESENT CONDITIONS 

It is impossible to give in detail the varying sys- 
tems, but judging from the most successful ones in 
use, from the point of view of both education and 
health, it would seem that the following experiments 
have worked satisfactorily: 

One college considers athletics and gymnastics as 
of equal importance and divides the periods equally 
on alternate days. When the teams are practising 
for finals, the gymnastic period is reduced to one day. 
Another college requires four periods of work each 
week for the first three years, and in two of these 
periods athletics may be elected. A third provides 
graded athletics, which increases the variety and 
makes it possible for the less robust girls and fresh- 
men to begin on minor games of ball. A fourth in- 
stitution has included short lectures upon the pur- 
pose and value of athletics, and special lectures upon 
the games played. 

Some form of athletics, elective throughout the 
year, is desirable. Ring hockey and indoor baseball 
may be substituted during the winter for the cor- 
responding outdoor games. This not only gives all 
girls a chance but the group training may be begun 
at once and carried throughout the year. Under no 
conditions, where there is any gymnasium, should all 
athletics be omitted during the winter semester, even 
if the place is only big enough for volley-ball, captain- 
ball, etc. One highly organized game and one minor 
game is a wise limitation. An average of three days 
excuse per month from all physical training is the 
practice. 



ATHLETICS IN UNIVERSITIES 103 

Athletic Associations. — It is impossible to discuss 
athletics in colleges without considering athletic asso- 
ciations and clubs, which exist in more than eighty per 
cent, of the large colleges and exert a wide influence. 
This tendency is seen also in a number of the small 
colleges. They may have but one game, oftentimes 
no gymnasium and but superficial instruction, and 
still maintain flourishing associations. Some so-called 
athletic associations have really very little to do with 
athletics. Sometimes they are merely informal clubs 
with no object except to stimulate interest or the de- 
bating society adds athletics to its other activities. 
In a few instances our correspondents described these 
organizations as " weak " ; " inchoate " ; " demoralize 
the school in the name of class spirit " ; " pernicious in 
stimulating competitions " ; " ineffective " ; or, " bad 
for the school," but in the majority of cases they 
were considered of great assistance. 

Membership is generally made up of undergradu- 
ates, but the administration varies. Ordinarily the 
control is vested in one of the following groups : 

(1) Officers of the association and captains of 
teams and manager. This represents entire student 
control and is rare. (2) Officers of the association, 
captains of teams and physical education director. 
(3) To this second type are frequently added mem- 
bers of the faculty, elected by the association. This 
is the most common type and is effective. (4) Officers 
of the association, one representative from each 
game, including indoor gymnastic group and physi- 
cal education director. In this last group, members 



104 PRESENT CONDITIONS 

of the faculty are only elected by the association to 
the advisory committee. One college varies this by 
having the three lower classes represented, instead of 
the game groups; another by adding to the officers 
and representatives from each sport a member at large 
for each class. One university has, in addition to 
the executive committee of the association, a faculty 
athletic committee and a board of control appointed 
by the president of the college, consisting of two 
faculty members, a graduate student and the presi- 
dent and treasurer of the athletic association. They 
have charge of funds and grounds. Under some as- 
sociations each game group is organized into a club 
and the various officers who have control of that group 
represent it on the executive committee of the general 
association. In others, there is no formal club, each 
team being the center of the group and directing its 
activities through the captain. In one college the sys- 
tem is quite elaborate. There are seven organized 
sports, each constituting a department, which is under 
the direction of the captain and head. Each sport 
has its own set of regulations and the duties of its 
officers are carefully defined. The captains and heads 
give the instruction in each department. All of these 
various types of organizations are found in the vari- 
ous colleges, but (3) and (4) possess the greatest in- 
terest for new organizations looking for a model. 
The combination of officers of the association, physi- 
cal director, and one representative from each game 
group and from each class with faculty on the ad- 
visory board is exceedingly valuable. 



ATHLETICS IN UNIVERSITIES 105 

The duties of these executive committees or boards 
vary, as the following show : 

" Its duties are to formulate rules for governing 
athletics and athletic honors and to enforce these rules. 
It consults with the advisory committee regarding the 
welfare of the association but there is no appeal from 
its decisions." 

' To make appropriations, to appoint all committees 
for the control of athletic fetes and contests, and to have 
the supervision and final decision in all affairs pertain- 
ing to the interests of the association not otherwise pro- 
vided for by the constitution. Appeal from any de- 
cision of the executive board may be taken to the as- 
sociation by twenty-five members. " 

" Organized sports shall come under the supervision 
of the executive board. Each organization shall con- 
stitute a separate department, having the power to elect 
its own officers and make its own rules and regulations, 
subject to the approval of the executive board. Any 
sport may be authorized by the executive board/' 

' The executive committee shall be in charge of the 
four regular meetings of the association and shall meet 
the expenses of such. These regular meetings are a 
gymnasium meet, an open meet, reception to freshmen, 
and annual business meeting/' 

Associations are usually supported by membership 
dues and have for their object " improving conditions 
of health " and " attracting girls to the department 
of physical education." A few make improvements in 
the courts and purchase paraphernalia. Some are 
close corporations and no one can enter athletics or 
use the courts or equipment except through their 
doors. 



106 PRESENT CONDITIONS 

In one college, the association selects student lead- 
ers who also instruct the players. Where under- 
graduates have such a responsibility it is impossible 
to educate girls through play. Under this system, 
a college freshman just out of preparatory school 
had charge of freshman basketball. She was a good 
player but a hard one, had no knowledge of games 
other than their physical value and while fair and 
courageous, was far too young, inexperienced and un- 
trained to teach a game like basketball. It would 
seem that the selection and training of teams, deter- 
mination of number of games and other matters af- 
fecting the health and education of players, should 
properly be vested in the department of physical 
education, while field arrangements and all social 
functions could properly be in the hands of an 
association. 

This belief is borne out by the experience that the 
greatest service which associations now render is ex- 
ecutive social work. The influence exerted by them 
in selecting players, arranging schedules, etc., is small 
compared to the need of arousing class and college 
loyalty and spirit ; of stimulating interest ; of break- 
ing down social lines ; and of making games fair, 
attractive and wholesome. This is the opportunity 
and responsibility which no instructor or depart- 
ment can meet alone. The following are illustra- 
tive of the annual activities of some of the active 
associations, showing how they accomplish these 
results : 

A. (1) Freshman social and reception, given early 



ATHLETICS IN UNIVERSITIES 107 

in the fall, to which all women in the university are 
invited to meet the freshmen. The object is to inter- 
est the freshmen in the department of physical educa- 
tion and in the association. (2) A carnival, consist- 
ing of folk dances, short local play, booths of different 
nations and other entertainments. This is given to 
raise money for the pins and numerals which the asso- 
ciation presents each year to those who make the 
teams. (3) Mid-year entertainment by the members 
of the association to the teams. (4) May-fest, con- 
sisting of Maypole dances and final games in basket- 
ball and hockey. About one hundred of the associa- 
tion members and others took part in this. (5) Ban- 
quet at close of the season when the banners, cup, 
pins, numerals and other prizes and trophies are pre- 
sented. This is a formal affair with speeches, toasts, 
etc. (6) There are contests including three inter- 
class championship games each of basketball, hockey 
and indoor baseball and one gymnastic contest. At 
all of these the association has the responsibility of 
bringing out an audience, getting up enthusiasm, 
decorating the field or gymnasium, calling for invited 
guests and arranging advantageous seating for them, 
leading class and team songs and cheers, and provid- 
ing ushers, programs, etc. 

B. There are four general social days under the 
supervision and arrangement of the association: (1) 
Tree day, in which the dancing classes largely par- 
ticipate. (2) Float day, in which the rowing club 
members take a prominent part. (3) Field day, in 
which the basketball, hockey, tennis and other sports 



108 PRESENT CONDITIONS 

predominate. (4) Indoor meet by the gymnastic de- 
partment. 

C The association gives a reception to freshmen 
and has charge of all the social and executive details 
of the under-class championship between sophomores 
and freshmen, which includes one basketball and two 
hockey games ; and of the college championship be- 
tween Juniors and Seniors, and between sophomores 
and freshmen, which includes basketball, hockey and 
field and track events. The association provides and 
presents the pennants, numerals and letters to the 
winners. 

D. The association has charge of the gymnasium 
meet, the open meet and the reception given to fresh- 
men in the fall. 

Athletic associations could very well give more 
time and thought to developing good songs for field 
days, championship games and meets. They might 
also induce persons interested in the play movement 
and in games and their social expression to give lec- 
tures or addresses under their auspices. 

There is not much variety in athletic games or 
events now used for field days. An association can 
do much to stimulate interest in minor games and 
class contests, and in working out athletic events 
which will be good substitutes for such individual 
contests as shot put, etc., which are now used. 

Another function which might be undertaken by 
such athletic associations is a field day for secondary 
schools, similar to those now- given by universities to 
high school boys. In place of having only competi- 



ATHLETICS IN UNIVERSITIES 109 

tions between the various schools for prizes, the class 
teams of the hostess college could give exhibition 
games and the schools be invited to do likewise. A 
prize might be offered to the school playing the best 
exhibition game with its own teams. Perhaps one 
inter-scholastic competitive game, for educational 
rather than for competitive purposes, might be added. 
If the ideal maintained by colleges is to mean any- 
thing, their work and spirit must be presented in some 
concrete way to the various schools and all of these 
brought together socially under the guidance of the 
college, but always with the social, educational and 
esthetic values emphasized. 



I 



CHAPTER VI 

ATHLETICS IN POLITICAL AND SOCIAL 
ORGANIZATIONS 

Is it enough that athletics be given a place in the 
/educational system? Do not persons who have learned 
/to play need an outlet for the play spirit after they 
f leave school? Furthermore, many never reach the 
high school or college, and city grade schools at 
best offer but meager facilities for play. Aside from 
its educational value, play bears an important rela- 
tion to many city problems. For instance, it is a 
great safeguard against immorality, since it provides 
a normal, wholesome outlet for physical energy. 
Many short-sighted city administrations leave the 
matters of recreation to dance halls, where the fee for 
the use of the hall consists of the drinks that are 
bought. Speaking of their influence, Miss Jane Ad- 
dams says : x 

" The public dance halls filled with frivolous and 
vapid young people in a feverish search for pleasure 
are but a sorry substitute for the immemorial dances on 
the village green in which all of the older people of the 
village participated. . . . The modern city is content, 
how r ever, to turn over all the public provision for danc- 
ing to the proprietors of ' halls/ who deliberately use it 
as a snare to vice and at the best make money from this 

1 Charities, Vol. XVIII. , p. 494. 
110 



ATHLETICS IN ORGANIZATIONS 111 

insatiable desire on the part of young people. We have 
no sense of responsibility in regard to their pleasures 
and continually forget that amusement is stronger than 
vice and that it alone can stifle the lust for it. We see 
all about us much vice which is merely a love for pleas- 
ure ' gone wrong/ the illicit expression of what might 
have been not only normal and recreative pleasure but 
an instrument in the advance of a higher social 
morality/ ' 

There are no public gymnasia for women in most of 
the cities and very little opportunity is provided for J 
organized play for adults. 1 A number of political J 
and social institutions are undertaking to meet this 
need, and it may be of interest to show something of 
the scope and methods of their activitie^and to sug- 
gest some ways in which both the recreational and 
educational advantages may be increased^ While it is 
not possible to include all, some idea may be gath- 
ered from a brief outline of athletics in municipalities, 
settlements, vacation homes and camps, Young 
Women's Christian Associations, industrial welfare 
movements, trade unions, schools of philanthropy and 
reformatory institutions. 

MUNICIPALITIES 

Recreation, supported and controlled by the people 
themselves, is necessarily the most desirable because it 
is the most democratic, comprehensive and stimulat- 
ing. The significance of the general movement by and 
for the people cannot be overestimated. It started 
with a demand for " breathing spaces," until now the 

1 For plan, Kellor, "Experimental Sociology," pp. 271 ff. 



112 PRESENT CONDITIONS 

playground, recreation center, gymnasium, vacation 
school, athletic field, etc., are recognized as of vital 
social importance. 

Playgrounds. — It is scarcely necessary to empha- 
size the need of playgrounds, for the movement on the 
part of the cities to obtain them is general. But there 
is great need to emphasize increased use of play- 
grounds for girls. Because the boys wait around in 
scores to get in and the girls have to be induced to 
come is no argument that they do not want or need 
them. A prominent leader in the school garden move- 
ment in New York writes : 

' The first thought is always for the boy along these 
lines, generally because he is sure to smash something 
if space is not allotted to him in which to work off his 
animal spirit. The girl has her domestic duties. After 
five hours of schoolroom she must help mother by tak- 
ing care of the baby or washing dishes; and then must 
sit down to study her lessons before going to bed; and 
if her animal spirits break loose and childhood's rights 
assert themselves, she is termed a tom-boy. If she will 
quietly walk up and down, interchanging confidence with 
some other girl, it is considered the proper thing." 

A director of a playground says in a letter to the 
writers : 

" Girls have far too little desire for play, far too 
little imagination and do not care for active games. 
They know very few and these are almost exclusively 
' ring ' games, with stupid or vulgar songs to accompany 
them. Many children have lost the spirit of play from 
always having the care of babies. Our efforts are 
directed toward encouraging activity, teaching new 
games, reforming vulgarities of street games and giving 



ATHLETICS IN ORGANIZATIONS 113 

physical, social and mental development through 
games." 

The Playground Association of America, which 
held its first annual meeting in Chicago in June, 1907, 
is in a fair way to crystallize the sentiment and to 
give the entire playground movement great impetus 
throughout the country. Its objects are " to study 
playground construction and administration, to col- 
lect all available publications and material, to give 
publicity to its information and to register and keep 
account of all trained playground workers." It is to 
be hoped that this organization will do much for 
girls both in the presentation and discussion of their 
needs and in urging the use of organized games. 1 

Without the playground to keep the play spirit 
alive, maintain health and give the preliminary 
training in citizenship, organized games reach but 
few people. Unfortunately, so far as athletic games 
are concerned, the city playground does not offer a 
wide opportunity. Few are large enough to pro- 
vide for more than a basketball court, though there is 
a growing tendency to introduce the less highly or- 
ganized games. The number wishing to use them 
and the presence of mothers and babies have led to 
the substitution of games which admit large num- 
bers. Where playground work is not supervised, 
graded or systematized, children, schoolgirls and 
young women all come together and highly organized 
group games are not possible. 

Notwithstanding the present limitations in ath- 
1 Publishes a quarterly magazine, The Playground. 



114 PRESENT CONDITIONS 

letics, the playground is an influential factor in social 
ethics. It is the natural place for both girls and boys 
to learn right from wrong and to understand their 
rights and duties. Social morality is not inborn, and 
if play is not directed it may not be learned until 
too late, for to many the playground presents the 
only opportunity. Smart tricks will take the place 
of a square deal ; good minds will cover small morals ; 
and the girl will grow into one who brags and bullies 
rather than one who respects the rights and attain- 
ments of others. " Directed play " is the ideal toward 
which superintendents of playgrounds are aiming, 
though they still discriminate and offer games to boys 
and unorganized play to girls. 

Park Gymnasia. — Parks offer better facilities for 
girls than do city playgrounds. They could be used 
even more for organized play than they are without 
impairing their esthetic value. No city offers a better 
illustration of what may be done in the utilization of 
parks for play than Chicago, and so far as we know 
no city has provided such nearly equal facilities for 
men and boys and for women and girls. 

These parks contain athletic fields where baseball 
and tennis are played in summer and football and 
tennis in the fall. Women do not ordinarily use these. 
There is also an outdoor field and gymnasium for 
men. Not far from these are smaller ones for women, 
similarly equipped but with more provision for play 
and less for heavy apparatus, which also contain 
swimming pools and shower baths. 

There is a separate playground with wading pools 



ATHLETICS IN ORGANIZATIONS 115 

and sand piles for small children, both boys and girls, 
where mothers accompany them. 

The most interesting features of these parks are 
the field houses. They contain a library, restaurant, 
club room and auditorium open to both sexes. At one 
end is a gymnasium for men and at the other a similar 
one for women, somewhat smaller. These are com- 
pletely equipped and instruction is provided in bas- 
ketball, baseball, gymnastics, etc., in winter and sum- 
mer. Contests are played here between the various 
teams. The regular hours are from 2 :30 to 9 :30 in 
summer and from 3 :30 to 9 :30 in winter. On Sun- 
days there is a special director. A report of the 
work bears testimony to the social value of athletic 
training. 1 

' The regular class work for girls is supplemented by 
inter-park basketball, long-ball and other games. These 
games are arranged in the manner of an invitation from 
one park to play as guests of another park. 

' It is the plan to conduct out-of-door work from May 
1st to November 1st. Much of this work will be in- 
formal and undirected except that the gymnasiums will 
be under the supervision of the instructor at all times. 
In addition to the informal and undirected work, formal 
class work in free exercise, apparatus work, games and 
athletic events will be conducted afternoons and even- 
ings at stated hours. 

" Emphasis will be placed upon the organization of 
track athletic teams, the holding of dual, triangular and 
inter-park meets, arranged and conducted with reference 
to group interests. 

" Invitation athletic meets of suitable character will 
be conducted among the girls. The guiding principle in 

1 Report South Park Commission, 1906. 



116 PRESENT CONDITIONS 

conducting all out-of-door work will be to involve great 
numbers, to organize, along the lines of simplicity, large 
groups for interesting and beneficial gymnastic and 
athletic activities. 

' The value of the gymnasium and playgrounds as 
agencies with which to combat the tendencies toward 
social and physical degeneration which inevitably ac- 
company city life, has been emphasized by many 
eminent pedagogues, scientists and sociologists. Our 
public schools are first in combating and delaying the 
effects of these tendencies. But the valuable physical, 
mental and social training given by the public schools 
ends with the vast majority of children when they are 
still in their most plastic stages of development. 
Their school and play time is cut short because of the 
necessity for seeking work in office, factory or shop, 
there to become a cog in our complex industrial life. 
The park gymnasiums may and do at this time furnish 
the training needed in the children's muscular and 
neural development; and with the gymnasium conducted 
with reference to the sociological factors involved, it 
may be claimed that this work is a valuable adjunct to 
the public school system/ ' 

There is a growing tendency in most city parks to 
provide athletic facilities for girls, especially in bas- 
ketball and tennis. Hockey is used occasionally and 
can well be urged, for by frequent changes of field it 
is not hard on the turf. One city park provides an 
out-of-door gymnasium with a canvas top and open 
sides and also an open space 350 x 150 feet as an 
exercise ground for girls. 

Athletic Fields. — Outside of parks, it is only here 
and there that much attention is paid to girls, and 
there are few athletic fields for them. We have been 
able to find but one municipal athletic field and that 



ATHLETICS IN ORGANIZATIONS 117 

is not in use because there is no money to put it into 
condition. Even where facilities, such as tennis nets 
and basketball courts, are provided, girls are too fre- 
quently left to play by themselves. When an enthusi- 
ast or even director or patron of athletic games is 
asked about such work for girls, he usually looks dis- 
tressed and says : " Well, now I don't know about 
girls, but for boys ! " And then for five minutes there 
will be an eloquent description of facilities provided 
for boys. Girls have been neglected so long that it is 
not enough to put in the equipment and say " now 
play." The subject needs especial attention to devise 
ways of making games attractive, beneficial and more 
varied. 

Not only are cities interested in this matter of play, 
but there is a growing interest in town gymnasia in 
small towns of from 1,000 to 5,000. Unfortunately 
again, this is chiefly confined to men, and there are 
few or no places of recreation for the girl after she 
is out of school. 

Recreation Centers, Vacation Schools, Etc. — 
These are ordinarily a part of the school system and 
are largely for children. The growing use of 
schoolrooms and roofs where girls are taught games 
is a matter for congratulation, and most of the large 
cities make some effort to maintain recreation centers. 
Without the use of school buildings, much of the 
athletic work would be impossible. So rapidly has this 
been extended that in some cities not enough super- 
visors of play can be found to take charge of those 
willing to come and play. 



118 PRESENT CONDITIONS 

In one city, there are twenty-one such centers, 
twelve for men and boys and nine for women and girls. 
A principal, club director and athletic instructor are 
provided. Those who attend often form clubs and 
sometimes assist in the discipline of unruly members. 
The following description of the work in these evening 
recreation centers for women and girls shows how 
little educational work is considered even in the most 
progressive schools: 

" The work in the recreation centers was organized 
into four distinct departments — the reading and study 
room, the literary and debating clubs, quiet games and 
gymnastic teams. 

" The program for girls' center differs but slightly 
from that of the boys. Their athletic exercises are 
always taken in classes with an instructor, and their 
club work is distinct and progressive. They care less 
for games of skill and more for reading. The last half- 
hour of each evening is spent in graceful dancing. It 
required this to eliminate the romping of which they 
are so fond, and the stately , old-fashioned minuet has 
been serviceable in this direction. The women are quite 
as enthusiastic as the men over their club. They are 
fond of games and like gymnastics.'' 

The vacation school has made games a large part of 
its work in many cities and has helped to solve the 
summer problem. Occasionally definite periods are set 
aside for organized games. Another feature of some 
vacation schools is the excursion, where the greater 
part of the time is spent in playing games. 

School Gardens. — Only an occasional school gar- 
den considers play for girls. The out-of-door work 
in caring for the garden is usually considered suffi- 



ATHLETICS IN ORGANIZATIONS 119 

cient. One superintendent of a school garden, who 
sees the need clearly, writes : * 

" After garden hours, the older boys and girls hung 
about helplessly, looking for something to do. The 
ground adjoining the garden is hilly and was covered 
with a rank growth of weeds, but after weeks of hard 
work, two tennis courts and basketball ground were 
evolved. The boys formed a baseball team and secured 
the use of the grounds a short distance away. Through 
the courtesy of an owner, a plot of ground adjoining the 
garden was laid out. 

' The main feature of the playgrounds has been the 
team work. The garden pupils are girls and boys of 
the grammar grades, soon to leave school and enter the 
working world. There they have two great lessons to 
learn; first, to do one's own work well; second, to work 
with others, subordinating individual interest to a com- 
mon end. The first lesson is begun in the garden, in 
the care and responsibility for the individual plot. The 
second is begun on the playground. The end of team 
work is the joy of winning and to attain that end all 
must work as one. This is a far harder lesson than 
the first. No one save the attendant teacher knows 
how often a team threatened to go to pieces because 
1 Mary was mad at Kate/ or ' John told Fred last night 
he wasn't any good anyway/ 

" In spite of such difficulties, two baseball and six 
basketball teams were organized and did very good 
work. Scorebooks were kept to show the result of 
each game. An examination of the scorebooks shows 
a total of 103 children engaged in team work during the 
season. This number does not include those children 
using the tennis, quoits, etc. After garden hours, young 
people from neighborhoods near both gardens used the 
tennis and basketball grounds, bringing their own nets, 
balls and racquets. When match games were played 
between the two gardens enthusiasm ran high. Usu- 

1 Report, School Gardens, Philadelphia, 1905. 



120 PRESENT CONDITIONS 

ally there was an attendance of several hundred parents, 
friends and interested neighbors at each game. ' That 
baseball has been the making of my boys/ remarked one 
enthusiastic mother." 

A leader in the School Garden movement in New 
York says : 

" During 1902, when I started the Children's Garden, 
there was no provision for gymnastic exercises in the 
neighborhood. One day the police called my attention 
to an over-grown girl of fourteen, who was having a 
most enjoyable time sliding head first from the roof of 
our cottage. He asked if I thought that proper. I 
looked over the lots. Some men were playing ball at one 
end, some boys were intent upon their games at another. 
I thought of this awkwardly tall girl trying to reach 
womanhood through the environment of a poor two- 
room home, with no fresh air or sunshine, and I replied 
to the officer, * No one seems to be looking at her but 
you, and if you look toward the river you will not see 
her,' and she slid up and down that roof happily 
oblivious of a weary world. I very soon had some 
simple gymnasium apparatus placed, and the weather 
never seemed too cold to keep the girls off the lot." 

Summary and Suggestions. — This brief account 
of municipal activities shows a little of what is being 
done and holds out high hope for the future. There 
are, in addition to extending the movements described, 
many other things which the friends of games for 
girls may urge: 

There are many vacant lots in cities which the 
owners, if rightly approached, would permit to be 
used for such games as basketball, indoor baseball, 
hockey and less highly organized games. Settlements 
could undertake to provide supervisors of play. 



ATHLETICS IN ORGANIZATIONS 121 

Play festivals, including organized games and ex- 
hibitions by municipalities of their work in vacation 
schools, recreation centers, etc., would assist in stimu- 
lating interest. One city conducts civic games for 
men ; why not play festivals for girls ? 

Germany has a " Central Committee for the Pro- 
motion of Games," which consists of prominent gov- 
ernment officials, physical trainers, educators, etc. 
Its work is to study the games and sports of other 
countries and to introduce them into Germany. It 
has also not only systematized and graded games but 
has urged shorter school hours so there will be avail- 
able time for play. It has also held normal schools 
of play, thereby training several thousand teachers, 
conducted play congresses and published excellent 
periodicals and reports in the interests of play. Some 
such movement is needed to develop the play spirit 
and provide additional training and facilities for 
girls in this country. 

The limited space available in cities for play- 
grounds has led the Director of Physical Training of 
the New York City schools to suggest a twenty-story 
playground. He estimates that below Fourteenth 
Street there are fully 225,000 children and that the 
city provides playgrounds for only about seven per 
cent, of them. So far as we know the need of cities 
and the slender resources in time and money of those 
whom it is sought to reach, smaller buildings more 
convenient to the crowded neighborhoods, with pro- 
visions for organized games and equal facilities for 
girls and boys, would more adequately meet the need. 



122 PRESENT CONDITIONS 

In the smaller cities, a wider use of schoolhouses 
and the establishment of small simple playhouses for 
women are within the immediate possibilities. Any 
floor space which will provide for a basketball court, 
small indoor baseball diamond, ring hockey and for 
less highly organized games and for folk plays and 
dances is highly desirable. 

SETTLEMENTS 

Settlements were among the first to provide games 
for girls. In many cities they have stood behind the 
playground movement and have made it possible. 
They have also acquainted the neighborhood with its 
opportunity or taken parties of small girls to the 
centers provided. Some of the settlements maintain 
country houses or summer camps where games are 
played. During the summer, excursion parties con- 
stitute a large part of their activities and organized 
games are made a prominent feature for boys, though 
not so much for girls. Where settlements have a small 
yard it is usually turned into a playground, furnish- 
ing a practice field for the battery of the settlement 
nine, or is used by the small children for minor games. 
The residents also take the settlement teams off to 
vacant fields where they can practise. This is not 
always an easy thing to do. One of the women resi- 
dents was invited to accompany the ball team to an 
outlying park in one of the large cities on Sunday. 
Thinking baseball was prohibited there, she declined. 
After much urging she told the team to have its first 
practice alone, and if there was no trouble she would 



ATHLETICS IN ORGANIZATIONS 123 

go the following Sunday. They returned jubilant, 
with the announcement, " Say, you oughter gone — 
we only got chased five times by the cop and got over 
the fence every time. We's had a grand game and 
can play dere." 

Facilities. — In the matter of athletics settlements 
have not only been pioneers but continue largely to 
influence public opinion and to take the initiative. Of 
the one hundred settlements responding to our in- 
quiries, sixty per cent, provided some facilities for 
organized games, independently of the neighboring 
parks and recreation centers; twenty-eight per cent, 
had no work; and twelve per cent, were building or 
equipping gymnasia. Of the twenty-eight per cent, 
a few stated that they had given up their work be- 
cause playgrounds had been opened in their neigh- 
borhood. Forty-five per cent, had a playground of 
their own in addition to a gymnasium, or were near 
playgrounds which they used. 

While the amount of work provided for girls is 
encouraging and is increasing, a considerable propor- 
tion of the sixty per cent, which provided work did not 
extend it to girls and did not appear to realize its 
value, though they were sure it was " a good thing 
for boys." Not one settlement stated that it shared 
the gymnasium equally between girls and boys and 
but few said that a special effort was made to interest 
girls so they would use the time already allowed them. 

Basketball is so popular that some girls will play 
no other game. Gymnastic games are sometimes used, 
but there is a deplorable lack of variety and absence 



124 PRESENT CONDITIONS 

of any educational idea. Of the sixty per cent, of the 
settlements which have gymnasia, only a trifle more 
than thirty per cent, provided for organized play, and 
that chiefly in the way of basketball. 

There is also a definite need for supervision and 
trained instructors. Many settlements have not 
enough work to afford a paid instructor. Most of 
them are located in the crowded sections of cities, 
where rental of floor space is very high and must con- 
tent themselves with the use of a small room, roof, 
or by covering a small yard. Thirty-six per cent, of 
the instructors are college girls who may or may not 
have had athletic training; thirty-seven per cent, 
have had some training in schools of physical train- 
ing ; eighteen per cent, are residents with no especial 
training and the remainder are " professional men 
coaches." In only about seven per cent, are measure- 
ments or examinations required or any special study 
made of the needs of working women and badly nour- 
ished girls. This is perhaps the chief oversight, as the 
dangers from over-exertion are so great. Almost 
every settlement surely has some physician suffi- 
ciently interested to take up this matter. 

Contests. — In the matter of contests there is a 
somewhat conservative attitude. One half do not play 
outside teams, and of the other half, about five per 
cent, discourage but do not prohibit them and empha- 
size inter-class games. In one settlement we found 
teams playing three or four match games a month, 
during the season, with outside teams, but such excesses 
are not common. One to three inter-settlement contests 



ATHLETICS IN ORGANIZATIONS 125 

a year seem desirable, for inter-class contests are not 
always possible, as where the small gymnasium accom- 
modates but one class. Inter-settlement contests serve 
a necessary purpose, for the interest is difficult to 
keep, owing to the competition of dance halls and 
other places of amusement in neighborhoods filled with 
daily dramatic incidents. 

Athletic Associations. — It is regrettable that so 
few settlements have any kind of athletic associa- 
tions to stimulate interest, develop social qualities and 
teach the girls self-government. At present the whole 
matter is usually directed by residents and the social 
features are consequently much neglected. Exhibi- 
tion games, field days and meets have almost no place, 
and in some cases the gymnasium is to the girl simply 
a place where she may dance. 

Systems of Work. — These vary so much that it is 
impossible to give an accurate general account of 
them. The usual amount of time given to girls is two 
evenings or afternoons per week. One settlement 
gives but one and one-half hours a week while another 
gives three evenings a week, and some have afternoon 
classes and grade the work. The usual plan is to have 
the first part of the hour devoted to gymnastics and 
the latter part to games. The classes are frequently 
made up by the various clubs. One settlement has 
early afternoon classes for women; late afternoon 
classes for school girls and evening classes for work- 
ing girls. In another the gymnasium is used during 
the year by about five hundred different women and 
girls and cannot meet the demand. 



126 PRESENT CONDITIONS 

In a few the systems, in spite of the limited facili- 
ties and great numbers using them, are so good that 
they may be helpful to others, whose available space 
is perhaps limited to a single room. 

In one, classes are divided into women's senior and 
women's intermediate classes, and into intermediate 
school girls' and junior girls' classes. Each meets 
twice every week for an hour. The first part of 
the hour is given to gymnastics and the latter part 
to games. Saturday evenings are left open for 
contests and about three contests a season are played. 
Evening classes are reserved for those employed dur- 
ing the day. Physical examinations are made by a 
physician, corrective work prescribed and games are 
supervised by a graduate of a physical training 
school. 

In another, two afternoons and evenings a week are 
given to girls and women, one afternoon and evening 
is given to gymnastics and the other to children's 
games and athletics. One inter-settlement contest a 
year is pla} T ed, measurements are taken before a girl 
is permitted to play and the work is under the direc- 
tion of two physical training school students. 

A third, with a comparatively small gymnasium 
for girls, has so good a system that it has eight- 
een classes a week. One afternoon is reserved for 
contests. 

Defects and Suggestions. — The defects, if they 
can really be called such, in view of the signal service 
rendered to the playground movement and of what 
has been accomplished in the face of limitations of 



ATHLETICS IN ORGANIZATIONS 127 

space and equipment and lack of competent super- 
vision, are the following: 

Not enough thought is given to work for girls. 
The temptations due to crowded quarters of cities 
are quite as great for them as for boys and their 
morals quite as easily corrupted. 

Too little attention is paid to the needs of working 
girls. A variety of games, folk dances, etc., adapted 
to their needs are essential. Basketball, as the only 
game, is too strenuous for those who have had no 
training and who work from eight to fourteen hours 
per day. 

Some of the disadvantages are due to the accept- 
ance of the professional " coach." It is feasible for 
several settlements to combine and engage a trained 
'instructor. These instructors, as one settlement 
worker writes, should be " trained to handle working 
girls' classes ; if they are not, they are often failures." 

Organized games have too small a place in camps, 
country houses, excursions, etc., conducted by settle- 
ment workers. Girls off on vacations are too much 
inclined to indulge in " horse play," or sit about ex- 
changing confidences, talking of young men and " re- 
lating experiences." 

There is a tendency to discontinue the gymnasium 
when a municipal playground is started and to trust 
to the latter to do the needed work. This seems to be 
a mistake, for there are many mothers who will not 
let their daughters go to a public playground and 
are just as careful as though they could afford a 
private instructor. The settlement that keeps up its 



128 PRESENT CONDITIONS 

own athletic work while assisting in obtaining a play- 
ground has a much better chance of retaining its hold 
upon the young girls in the neighborhood. 

A w r ider use of roofs, vacant lots or vacant rooms 
could be urged. Hockey can be played on vacant lots 
until winter. Indoor baseball and ring hockey can be 
played in quite small rooms. As no equipment is 
needed, the use of some of these vacant spaces might 
be obtained free or at a small rental. 

Exhibition games, field days and meets which afford 
social features need emphasis. Folk dances could be 
made an attractive part of these and would help to 
attract the girls. 

The educational and social value of athletic clubs 
could be increased by interesting lectures under their 
auspices. There are inter-settlement associations for 
boys, why not for girls? These could be under the 
supervision of the combined settlements, and might 
assist in obtaining a higher standard and in regulat- 
ing contests and developing social features. A con- 
ference of settlements in each city to discuss, not only 
the value of athletic work, but to help each other work 
out better systems, might lead to a wider adoption of 
games, played under better conditions. 

VACATION HOMES AND CAMPS 

These do not offer so good an opportunity for 
sustained education as do playgrounds and settlement 
gymnasia. Although the period of the outing is 
short, usually limited to one or two weeks, the girls 
during that time are entirely under the influence of 



ATHLETICS IN ORGANIZATIONS 129 

the homes, and it can be made the most of in every 
way. The director can introduce games at least 
once each day, and if minor games are used, twice 
or oftener. For working girls, suddenly having all 
of their energy released and needing some outlet, 
games offer a splendid opportunity. They help to 
solve the problem of discipline ; furnish a good alter- 
native to dancing, which is becoming far too much 
emphasized ; make an excellent topic of conversation ; 
and in even this short time some idea of the social 
qualities required in group work can be gained. Em- 
ploying a game director is an experiment worth try- 
ing in each vacation home. 

Summer camps for girls, both for study and recrea- 
tion, are growing in favor, and many institutions are 
establishing them. The demand for persons capable 
of taking charge of them exceeds the supply. The 
plan deserves a wider extension, not only to working 
girls but to the leisure class as well. Many girls are 
only made more individualistic by sending them 
abroad at an early age with a chaperon, while a little 
group training and closeness to nature would be a 
greater benefit in many ways. Such camps ordinarily 
have all of the individual sports, such as riding, canoe- 
ing, swimming, etc., which are excellent recreation 
but are not socially educational. The " athletic 
tutor " of the right kind is much needed here. 

YOUNG WOMEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS 

The influence these associations may have on the 
social education of women can be paralleled by no 



130 PRESENT CONDITIONS 

other group at the present time. There are large 
numbers of working girls of the middle class who have 
no other social centers. There is a considerable 
number of unemployed girls of the middle class who 
are not permitted to work whose homes and social ac- 
tivities do not satisfy them. There are girls who wish 
to contribute to social betterment in activities other 
than those of the church. There are also graduates 
from high school and college who have played games 
in school and take up work in the city. What place is 
there for them to continue their physical and group 
activities? There is still another group greatly in 
need of some social outlet, namely the factory and 
shop workers in small industrial centers. All of these 
are in need of the training as well as the recreation 
which athletic games provide. An investigation made 
by one of the Association members shows something 
of this: 1 

" City life is each year crowding more people into 
smaller space with consequently diminishing opportu- 
nity for out-of-door work, and artificial means must be 
provided to induce a sufficient amount of exercise indoors. 
The total population of the United States has increased 
twenty per cent, during the last ten years, but the city 
population has increased thirty-six per cent, during the 
same time. About ten million American women and 
girls live in cities. For many of these a gymnasium 
would provide a most wholesome health measure. It is 
within the reach of some, though not a large proportion. 
In this country the number of wage-earning women above 
fifteen years of age is almost five million, and the num- 
ber of wage-earning girls between ten and fifteen years 

1 Special Report of Y. W. C. A , 1905. 



ATHLETICS IN ORGANIZATIONS 131 

is almost half a million. For most wage-earners the 
daylight hours are the working hours. Rest and recrea- 
tion must come after dark, when many kinds of out- 
door exercise are out of the question. Pleasant and 
safe and wholesome good times are needed, and for most 
of these women the expense must not be great. Many 
of them are supporting others as well as themselves. " 



Some of these women need recreation, some educa- 
tion, some a good time, some social expression, some 
happiness, while others are full of pent-up energ}~ 
which is likely to lead them to the dance hall or other 
amusement places where they can make a noise and 
" have a good time." It becomes a question not 
solely of exercise and recreation but of morality and 
public concern. 

Now the girl who has worked all day in a stuffy 
shop until her eyes and fingers and back and head 
ache; the girl who has only a four-room apartment 
which she shares with many others ; the girl whose 
body is tried by physical exertion and spirit by its 
yearning for something bright, relaxing and beauti- 
ful, — these cannot be expected to choose the Associa- 
tion's rooms (not because their intentions are bad) un- 
less it has some way of understanding their life and 
of meeting their needs. The Bible, sewing or cooking 
classes may or may not do this, for they may not be 
ready for them. But the gymnasium and games will 
do it if they are open to them. 

Facilities and Methods of Work. — What is being 
done to meet this need? Their investigator says fur- 
ther of the Association work : 



132 PRESENT CONDITIONS 

" Of the 100 largest cities in the United States, 43 
have no gymnasium work; of the 77 cities having a 
population of 50,000 or more, 33 have none, and no 
Association gymnasium in a city often means none at 
all. 

" Between February and May, 1905, I received from 
nearly all the Associations under the International 
Board and under the American Committee answers to a 
lost of questions in regard to the physical work. The 
replies represent 139 city Associations under both 
boards. From 10 no replies were received; 52 are at- 
tempting no work at present; 4 send their pupils to a 
college gymnasium; 33 have a room or gymnasium part 
of the time; 50 have a room or gymnasium the whole 
time. This gives 83 doing more or less work. Thirty- 
nine of these have a teacher for part time; 37 have a 
teacher or physical director whole time; 7 have a phys- 
ical director with one or more assistants. 

" Seventy-seven Associations report 708 weekly ses- 
sions with an enrollment of 9j>515. As to the equipment, 
I did not state. Eleven have none, 1 1 have ' light ap- 
paratus ' only, 60 have small to complete equipments. 

" These facts give us some cause for pride in our As- 
sociation, and more reason for hope and courage, and 
still more occasion to redouble our efforts. 

" With only two Associations doing gymnasium work 
sixteen years ago, we now have over 80 doing more or 
less in this line." 

The inquiries made by us verify these statements. 
Speaking of the growth of physical training and the 
difficulties, one of our correspondents says : 

' The beginnings of the gymnasia were necessarily 
small. First, the Associations found a few rooms where 
meetings for young women could be held. These meet- 
ings were usually of a religious or social nature. As the 
meetings grew, larger quarters were secured. Often- 
times the boards of managers were fortunate enough to 
raise money to erect Association buildings. Although 



ATHLETICS IN ORGANIZATIONS 133 

there were some who recognized the need of physical 
training, the quarters given for it were the places which 
could be converted into something else should the ' fad ' 
pass ; or when rooms were not needed for other purposes, 
they were used for gymnastic work. 

" For the most part, in the Associations recently built 
the gymnasium is given the proper space and place, not 
in the basement but on the ground floor or higher up; 
not a place that can be converted into something else, 
but a gymnasium well equipped with locker and dress- 
ing-room accommodations. The newer Association gym- 
nasiums have swimming pools as well as baths." 

The work being done in one or two of the associa- 
tion gymnasia shows the possibilities. One has a floor 
space of 65 x 45 feet, excellent shower baths, etc. 
The work consists of Swedish gymnastics, games and 
basketball and fencing. There are also medical ex- 
aminations. The only objection to this plan, which 
prevails in many other associations as well, is the 
high fee, which in many cases makes the work pro- 
hibitive. The initiation fee is $1 and for two lessons 
a week is $5 from September 25 to May 5. A locker 
costs $1 more. The average pay per week of the fac- 
tory worker is about $5 ; the average pay of the clerk 
in the store is $6 to $8. The average rate of board 
is $3 for the former and $4 for the latter. Now 
girls earning these sums and most in need of physical 
work cannot pay $5 a season. Many of them cannot 
even afford to go to a dance unless some young man 
takes them. Cannot some means be found to bring 
working women into the gymnasium without such 
high fees ? This is not a question primarily of educa- 
tion, as are clubs and classes — it is a question of citi- 



134 PRESENT CONDITIONS 

zenship, of social morality and often of virtue as well. 
Here settlements and institutional churches are clearly 
in advance. 

Another association in the West offers some excel- 
lent opportunities. It provides gymnastics, basket- 
ball, center-ball, scrimmage, gymnastic games and 
children's games. The gymnasium is open eight 
months of the year, the classes meet twice each week, 
and twenty minutes of class time is given to games. 
An examination of heart and lungs is required and 
other measurements and strength tests are taken. It 
has classes for business women in the evening, and for 
women of leisure, high school girls and children in the 
afternoon. Class contests in ball games are occasion- 
ally permitted. There are occasional meetings of 
classes in a social way, and an effort is made to pro- 
mote good-fellowship through the gymnasium. 

Defects. — The investigations made by association 
members and by us on the whole show discouraging 
conditions. In the first place, there is a well-defined 
antagonism to athletics in many associations, due to 
the fear of the effect of competition and to an igno- 
rance of their value as training for good citizenship. 
Less than one-third of the eighty-three associations 
who offer gymnastics include any athletics whatever, 
confining their work to formal gymnastic classes. In 
the three main seaport towns where great numbers of 
young immigrant workers arrive yearly, and where 
thousands of working girls live, but one association 
offers any work in athletics. In the second there is no 
gymnasium and in the third athletics have been dis- 



ATHLETICS IN ORGANIZATIONS 135 

continued because the director is not in sympathy with 
games and because in her judgment they " make the 
girls rough." 

We have been unable to find any such emphasis upon 
the educational value as exists in the Y. M. C. A., and 
there is an utter absence of any general lectures or 
real instruction even where games are played. Little 
attention is paid to the qualifications of instructors. 

The Young Women's Christian Associations, in 
common with the settlements, have by far the great- 
est opportunity for making athletics a means of edu- 
cation. Fair play, regard for the rights of others, 
self-reliance and toleration, honesty and many other 
qualities previously emphasized, may be brought out 
as in no other classes. The Golden Rule and many of 
the precepts taught in Bible classes are but half 
appreciated, until applied in games to daily com- 
petition. There are no other organizations to meet 
this great need, and the social responsibility therefore 
rests for the present with these two organizations. 

Remedies. — In the report previously quoted, some 
valuable suggestions are made which we repeat here in 
the hope that some, who have not seen the report, may 
become more deeply interested in the work. 

" That the physical department be an integral part 
of the Association work. It is not just physical work, 
and girls should be made welcome in this if they can- 
not give time to other things. 

" Our gymnasiums must provide as good work as the 
very best if they would hold their own, and they must 
add a real sympathetic love for each girl. 

" Every class session should have in it some element of 



136 PRESENT CONDITIONS 

friendliness, sociability and recreation in addition to 
well-planned exercises. 

' There are many details in which physical directors 
need the help of each other. Could we not plan some 
regular means of conference and mutual help? A 
clearing house of ideas and suggestions is also sug- 
gested! Valuable conferences are held each summer in 
which games play a large part, as a means of recreation. 
Could not these develop something of the educational 
value and be made more helpful? " 

To these we may add the following: 

In building a new Y. W. C. A., build the gym- 
nasium first and add the other parts of the building 
afterward. 

Obtain an instructor who believes in both gymnas- 
tics and athletics and who can make them so interest- 
ing that she can compete with the dance hall and other 
places frequented by those in search of recreation. 

Learn the need and shape the physical education 
department to meet it, instead of planning a scheme 
of work and trying to make girls fit into it. 

Make the fees so low that they will not be pro- 
hibitory. 

Make some use of the gymnasium during Sunday. 
Girls who work six days a week must be appealed to by 
some real relaxation from the work of the week. The 
dance hall, the picnic, the excursion all run on this 
day. Why not be practical Christians and under- 
stand the methods of business competitors and 
counteract them at every vulnerable spot ? 

Emphasize the social features. Encourage teas 
and banquets and dinners and social gatherings in 



ATHLETICS IN ORGANIZATIONS 137 

the gymnasium, given by the different classes to 
each other and to their friends. Exhibitions and 
contests between classes can be made into attract- 
ive social functions. Much or all of this is now 
lacking. 

Make a special effort to reach the working girl who 
receives a low wage and who lives in a boarding house 
amid bad surroundings and without home ties, and do 
not have so much red tape that she cannot or does not 
want to come in. 

We earnestly urge that associations make an effort 
to reach immigrant girls whose energy needs guid- 
ance, but who by reason of the difficulties of language 
and a different standard of living are not able to 
choose their work or recreation wisely. A gymnasium 
(which may be one large room), with classes in Eng- 
lish, is enough of a plant to start in a neighborhood 
where they live. 

A further need is the establishment of a school for 
the training of workers, of which physical education 
should be an important department. Courses in 
physical training schools are not enough, although 
they are a fair beginning. There should be an his- 
torical, cultural and religious background which ex- 
isting physical education schools necessarily lack. 
Such a training school, on the plan of schools of 
philanthropy and of the Y. M. C. A. training schools, 
could well be patronized by those desiring to go into 
other institutions to teach. 



138 PRESENT CONDITIONS 

WELFARE WORK FOR EMPLOYEES 

One of the most important phases of welfare work 
supported by employers is the gymnasium. Many of 
the large factories and shops have them for men, and 
in some few instances their use is shared by women 
employees. As a rule welfare work for women has not 
included physical training, and welfare secretaries 
have not much knowledge of athletics. But the 
tendency is strong in that direction and the demand 
is already making itself felt. There are gymnastic 
classes on roofs, in basements and lofts and other 
rooms of the factory during the noon hour and in the 
evening after work, and young women from neighbor- 
ing colleges who have had physical training are in 
demand as teachers. While it is not possible to play 
highly organized games like hockey and baseball in 
the small areas at the disposal of the company, bas- 
ketball and minor games of ball are being added io 
the attractions. In one laundry, part of the noon 
hour is devoted by some of the employees to reading 
while others play basketball. The irregularity of 
laundry work, the long and short shifts, the night 
work and waits render it possible to make considerable 
use of games if only the space is provided. On the 
roof of another company's building, gymnastics and 
handball are popular; while on a third such simple 
games as tag, throwing the ball, etc., are permitted. 
One firm gives the use of its well-equipped gymnasium 
to women one afternoon each week from 4:30 to 7. 
Considering that they employ about 1,800 women this 



ATHLETICS IN ORGANIZATIONS 139 

is a short time. Unfortunately no Instructor is pro- 
vided and the work is disorganized. Another com- 
pany provides a gymnasium, tennis court and athletic 
field and has an instructor in charge. Another has a 
roof garden where handball is played, and one end is 
set aside for game tables. 

Some of the roofs are so arranged that minor games 
of ball can be played and varied with dancing and 
gymnastic games. Many industries have available 
rooms which can be used. Some of the department 
stores have already utilized the top floors and vacant 
rooms of their buildings for gymnastics and athletics, 
and even employ teachers. 

The use of gymnasia, roofs, etc., during the noon 
hour keeps the girls off the streets and gives them a 
wholesome interest as a substitute for gossip. Break- 
ing the long five-hour period with a half -hour of exer- 
cise or rest would be a gain rather than a loss to the 
company. One company requires that some of its 
employees shall have gymnastics while standing by 
their chairs, as school children relax by their desks. 

Some employers who have no facilities in their own 
plants have set a good example by obtaining accom- 
modations elsewhere. One English firm provides ten- 
nis and cricket courts, a large covered ground and a 
special gymnasium. Unless prohibited by the doctor, 
all girls under fifteen attend two classes weekly during 
work hours. A committee of girls entirely controls 
the athletic club which organizes all of the games, 
including basketball. It has also a swimming tank 
and shower and vapor baths under its charge. 



140 PRESENT CONDITIONS 

Every welfare secretary, whether in direct charge 
of the work or employing specialists, needs to know 
the value of physical training and to urge organized 
play among employees. 

TRADES UNIONS 

Combinations of working people, as well as of em- 
ployers, can build up group activity by recognizing 
the socializing value of organized play. The woman 
who works in the trades has little time for recreation, 
and practically none for education through games. 
The problem of trades unions for women is to develop 
the consciousness of a common cause. This may be 
a simple matter for men but it is not so for women. 
They change more rapidly from one occupation to an- 
other, regard employment as a means to an end and 
consider first whether they as individuals need the 
union, not whether the movement for bettering con- 
ditions needs them. Women's trades unions have an 
opportunity open to no other organization in reaching 
working women. At the very basis of their struggle 
for better conditions, higher wages, more leisure and 
better citizenship lies the necessity for team work and 
group loyalty — two things which games are pre- 
eminent in developing. This may seem a long way 
around, but its effectiveness makes it a factor to be 
considered. For this reason, these organizations 
should be interested not only in forwarding athletic 
movements in other institutions, but a gymnasium 
may very properly be made the nucleus for their own 
work. It makes a good place for meetings and 



ATHLETICS IN ORGANIZATIONS 141 

social gatherings, can be used by the children for 
class work during the day, while its evening athletics 
may be the direct means of bringing workers together. 
Folk dances appeal to the various nationalities and 
some may understand the purpose of the union better 
through its simple appeal to their love of their home 
country and its associations. One or two settlements 
have understood this and provided athletic classes for 
various local unions. The need of recreation as well 
as of education and the present wretched amusement 
facilities for working girls are a further plea for 
trades unions to take an interest in games as a means 
of making a more efficient democracy. 

REFORMATORY INSTITUTIONS 

Social education is not always a question of making 
citizens ; it is frequently the problem of reclaiming 
them. Tremendous sums and huge institutions are 
required for this purpose. The girl who needs re- 
claiming has usually set her individual right above the 
social right and has refused to do " team " work. Al- 
though athletics possess such possibilities for social 
education, the gymnasium is about the last thing one 
finds in reformatory institutions. Discipline by the 
rod instead of by teaching self-control, is more popu- 
lar. A few schools and homes use drills and simple 
gymnastic exercises as a matter of recreation and 
health, but directed play is rarely found. Some let 
the good girls play in the yards, but without super- 
vision. The amount of play time is proportionately 
small and young girls committed to institutions enter 



142 PRESENT CONDITIONS 

upon a dull, monotonous, deadly routine which turns 
out a machine, which without its operator either 
runs amuck or becomes a mere automaton. One 
superintendent writes : " This is not a place where 
girls come for fun and to have a good time but to 
be punished for their misdeeds and to learn to do 
right. " Fortunately this does not represent the atti- 
tude in all institutions. 

It is amazing that such a large percentage — more 
than three-quarters of the institutions studied — have 
neglected physical training entirely, abandoned it, or 
consider it unimportant. The physical condition of 
many young girls, their moral obtuseness, extreme 
individualism and mental dulness on arrival would 
lead one to think that a bright sunny gymnasium, 
with corrective and preparatory work and games, 
would be regarded as a first essential. Disordered 
emotions, pent-up energy, vicious desires and habits 
and distorted view of life can often be understood 
and corrected in the gymnasium when the schoolroom 
is a failure. 

It is also curious that many probation officers so 
ignore the value of organized play. The probation 
officer for boys puts them in settlement gymnasia, 
takes them off to camps or goes to vacant lots and 
plays with them. But the girl is frequently returned 
to the same district, same home, same everything, with 
no change in the outlet for her emotions, with no 
effort to reclaim her as a social being — and then it is 
said : " When a girl goes down it is almost impossible 
to save her." Wise probation officers who have put 



ATHLETICS IN ORGANIZATIONS 143 

their wards into playgrounds and settlements and en- 
deavored to develop the sterner qualities, tell a dif- 
ferent story and one fraught with great public in- 
terest. 

It is truly astounding that so many institutions, 
which have reformation for their object, do not 
recognize that a person without self-control is not a 
good or safe member of society and that where there 
is no freedom there can be no self-reliance. These 
institutions by their discipline shackle the mind and 
body, govern the girl by fear and force, leave her no 
power of choice and then expect self-control. The 
game gives freedom and opportunity for choice, and 
if players are insubordinate at first, the chance is 
there to teach the girl to guide herself aright. Once 
acquired this ability will continue when the removal 
of bolts and bars opens up a great freedom unac- 
companied by means of control other than that exer- 
cised by the girl herself. 

The best corroboration of the value and need of 
athletics comes from some of the reform institutions 
themselves, even where they have no trained teacher 
and do not emphasize the social and educational fea- 
tures of games. The testimony of the twenty -five per 
cent, who believe in and use them is most suggestive : 

' We have a gymnasium, also playgrounds which are 
used by girls. We have in all 312 girls between the 
ages of twelve and sixteen years, who live in cottages 
averaging from twenty-four to thirty-four each. We 
have eleven classes, each of which meets three times a 
week during the winter months and twice a week during 
the summer months. Through the winter the work in 



144 PRESENT CONDITIONS 

the gymnasium consists of drills with apparatus such as 
wands, dumb bells, Indian clubs, bar bells, etc., and 
heavy work as on bars, jumping, climbing, etc. This 
is lightened by games such as basketball, Newcomb, 
center-ball, shuffleboard, ring-toss, etc. We have an 
instructor for our work. We have public contests in 
that we give exhibitions. Our game contests are among 
the different classes. We never play with other schools. " 

1 The results obtained from games are very valuable 
from an educational and ethical standpoint. When we 
began with our games the girls were wild, selfish, quar- 
relsome and boisterous, but now we notice a great 
change. They are gaining self-control, alertness, 
honesty, endurance and a strong class spirit. They are 
learning to play through a game without losing their 
tempers or taking unfair advantages of their opponent/' 

" There are playgrounds for each cottage and a 
general baseball field, used by all the girls, where com- 
petitive games between the groups of cottages occur. 
There are gymnastic classes twice each week, in the 
winter, for each of the seven cottages. The recreation 
hours of each day are spent with baseball, basketball, 
tether-ball, croquet, tennis and dancing. There is an 
average of twenty-five girls in each class or cottage — 
all girls supposed to have some part in the games. No 
contests are held with outside teams, although visitors 
are invited to witness the competitive meets between the 
groups of players within the institution. The educa- 
tional and ethical value to our girls is most apparent — 
in the unfoldment of their better natures by giving them 
happiness — teaching them intuitively to enjoy the vigor- 
ous and healthful out-of-door life — balancing whatever 
nervous tension they may have in schoolroom, sewing 
room or kitchen by a sense of freedom and relaxation in 
the open air." 

" We have no gymnasium at the present time but 
have the plans and expect to erect one 50 by 80 
floor space in the near future. We have a large play- 



ATHLETICS IN ORGANIZATIONS 145 

ground about 400 by 380 feet. We have four classes 
using wands, dumb-bells and Indian clubs. We have 
three basketball teams; some of the girls play volley- 
ball, lawn tennis, tether-ball and croquet. Our basket- 
ball team is under instruction of a professional trainer. 
We thoroughly believe in the educational value of games 
and gymnastic work. I do not think it injurious to a 
comparatively weak girl. We have within three years 
had no ill effects; we have at the present time several 
girls who a year ago were comparatively slow in their 
movements. They are now erect and better all-around 
students than they were on entering the institution." 

1 The number of games in general use among the girls 
are as follows: Baseball, basketball, lawn tennis and 
croquet. The various games and clubs are under the 
supervision and management of the family managers and 
matrons, and under the instruction of the Superintend- 
ent, who has had practical experience in nearly all 
games, especially those herein mentioned. We fre- 
quently have public contests. This is especially true of 
the holidays. Then prizes are awarded to those suc- 
cessful in the contests. Regarding the educational and 
ethical value, I cannot speak too highly. The girls 
look forward to these sports and contests with the 
greatest expectation. It absorbs all their time and 
energies while on the playground; it helps our discipline 
a hundred fold ; and at the same time, gives that exercise 
that all girls should have, and it is done in a manner 
that does not require coercion. During the winter 
months when the girls are largely confined to the indoor 
life, we have similar games to fill up the long hours of 
the winter evenings that are just as interesting and en- 
tertaining. We also indulge in a great many entertain- 
ments; ninety-nine per cent, of these are given by the 
girls themselves. Would say in reference to the games 
during the summer, that we have four families, each of 
which have two baseball clubs, two basketball teams, 
one tennis club, as well as the croquet club. I per- 
sonally select these girls at the beginning of the season, 



146 PRESENT CONDITIONS 

keep a list of the names, select the captains of eacH 
club, instruct and train them, and require them to 
practise just as religiously as they eat when they go to 
the table and sleep when they go to bed, and consider it 
just as necessary and obligatory on them to do so as the 
foregoing. While there may be isolated cases that 
would demur, yet, a little common-sense, practical talk 
along these lines by way of explanations regarding the 
good that is to be had both from the physiological as 
well as the psychological and ethical point of view, soon 
brings them to easy co-operation with us in carrying out 
our plans. We have very little or comparatively no dif- 
ficulty in carrying these games on, especially as they are 
interspersed during the summer by public contests and 
awarding of prizes such as named. We remove all the 
bars, have no locked doors, no incarceration, no bread 
and water, nothing that will degrade the girl or detract 
from her pride or womanhood. We lay it largely, if not 
altogether, to the methods herein resorted to, filling the 
girl's working hours with a healthful and reasonable 
amount of school work and study along the lines of 
domestic science which, of course, she should know; 
and her hours of recreation with the methods herein 
stated. I think that the matter of discipline will adjust 
itself, to say nothing of the immense value of the exer- 
cise, sunshine, fresh air that she will derive. Indeed, it 
is these games and exercises that enable us to get good 
results in the schoolroom, in the kitchens, dining room 
and laundry and dress-making department and every 
vocation that they are engaged in. ,, 

No testimony could be stronger than the last letter, 
to the effect that social morality would be greatly 
strengthened if girls could have athletic training be- 
fore they return from these institutions. 

One reason that social and reformatory institu- 
tions do not place more emphasis upon the value of 
athletic training and use it as an agent of social 



ATHLETICS IN ORGANIZATIONS 147 

morality is that the schools in which its teachers and 
officers are trained almost wholly neglect this phase 
of social education. Is it not feasible to add to the 
courses in the schools of philanthropy such additional 
ones as the value of play ; education through means of 
games ; direction of playgrounds, recreation centers, 
etc., and a gymnasium where practical floor work 
and gymnastics and games can be taught and the 
right social spirit developed? Settlements and other 
organized social movements offer ample opportunity 
for field and experimental work, if the preliminary 
and fundamental work in theory be provided. The 
Y. M. C. A. schools do not meet the need, for they 
train especially for their own work, and can barely 
supply their own demand. Moreover, but few of their 
graduates teach women. The demand of the play- 
ground and recreation center and of the settlement 
alone, to say nothing of that of welfare work, institu- 
tions, etc., would seem to justify some such extension 
of work on the part of schools of philanthropy, or the 
starting of special schools for this purpose. 

These movements indicate something of the use 
that is being made of athletics in public institutions. 
While this use is significant, it is still a mere begin- 
ning compared with its possibilities. One difficulty is 
that women do not stand shoulder to shoulder and say 
intelligently, definitely, insistently and emphatically, 
" We want and need this thing." We believe that if 
women really set about demanding group honesty and 
fair play among women and the training necessary 
for it, they would get it. If they insisted upon civic 



148 PRESENT CONDITIONS 

virtue as they do upon personal virtue, it would be 
forthcoming. If the women of the community would 
get together and do team work instead of dissipat- 
ing energy on new clubs, or even if they would just 
understand the great necessity and be sorry a little 
while for their deficiencies as citizens, the problem 
of the need of play and games in cities would be far 
on its way toward solution. 



CHAPTER VII 
COMPETITIVE AND PUBLIC GAMES 

Much of the objection to any athletic training for 
girls centers about the fear that they cannot play 
games without entering into inter-scholastic competi- 
tion. It is remarkable that the amount of such com- 
petition is so small, compared to the number who play. 
Less than one-fourth of the colleges and private 
schools play inter-scholastic contests. In public 
schools, however, where there is no school control the 
percentage rises to seventy, chiefly basketball. 

Class Contests. — It has not been found desirable 
or necessary to eliminate class contests, and fully 
ninety per cent, of the institutions admit their value. 
Many reasons for the retention of class contests exist : 

( 1 ) While the greatest value lies in the daily train- 
ing, match games played under the intense desire to 
win are necessary to test this daily training in order 
to see how fundamental it is. This is best ascertained 
by contests under the control of the instructor, who 
can thus use them for educational purposes. Rivalry 
may run as high in an inter-class as in an inter- 
scholastic game, so the test and training are equally 
good. 

(2) Contests of some kind are necessary to stimu- 

149 



150 PRESENT CONDITIONS 

late a group spirit and to increase social activities 
among classes and institutions. 

(3) Match games direct the attention of those who 
are not players or especially interested to this branch 
of the work, and the department of physical educa- 
tion receives recognition where otherwise it might be 
neglected. 

(4) Contests strengthen the opportunity and 
necessity for social expression through athletic asso- 
ciations, and the desirable group experience of stu- 
dent government is thus made possible. 

Disadvantages of Inter-Scholastic Competition. — 
The objections to public inter-scholastic contests are 
for the most part well taken, although there is a 
tendency to exaggerate the danger in institutions 
other than public schools: 

(1) The physical and nervous strain upon young 
girls who journey from school to school, or from 
town to town, followed by a hard game is a severe one. 
It is also difficult under these conditions properly to 
supervise and safeguard teams and accompanying 
enthusiasts. 

(2) The lack of uniform rules and co-operation 
between competing organizations and the emphasis 
laid on winning prizes tend to delay placing athletic 
instruction upon an educational basis, lead to notori- 
ety and invite much adverse and unfair criticism. 

(3) The character of the audiences cannot be con- 
trolled where the contests are open to the public 
upon payment of an entrance fee. 

Some of the instructors in schools which encour- 



COMPETITIVE AND PUBLIC GAMES 151 

age inter-scholastic contests speak in no uncertain 
terms of their effect: 

" Few girls are ready to play outside teams. They 
lack the spirit of the sport and need to be trained in that 
more than in the liberal construction of rules." 

' We are advocating the abolition of the high school 
league. Girls take things so seriously and the members 
of the defeated team cannot concentrate on studies for 
several days, especially where prizes are offered. ,, 

* There is a great danger of sacrificing some of the 
finer traits for the peculiar boldness which outside con- 
tests bring out." 

One instructor writes at length that they do not 
encourage contests for the following reasons : 

' There is a great tendency to overdo themselves 
physically, which cannot be controlled as they play on 
outside teams. 

" They get interested in their game and spend so much 
time at it that they neglect their studies. 

' Their behavior generally is demoralizing to the 
school; they try every means to meet in the library, 
halls and lavatory and talk game, of course. 

" They very often go insane on their particular game, 
and do not care for any all-around work. 

" A team always consists of those members that are 
naturally strong and robust. This shuts out the more 
needy, who are anxious to use the gymnasium for op- 
tional practice after school. 

" We have hundreds who would like to use the gym- 
nasium but are unable to do so after school because the 
ten members of the team monopolize it. 

" This training to professionalism is to be condemned ; 
too much time is lost, carting around the country. This 
race for the championship makes it a too strenuous affair 



152 PRESENT CONDITIONS 

and relations become strained. The losing team pick 
out coaches, teachers or umpires as targets. 

"If we must have contests, it would be better to have 
them among the pupils of the school among the different 
years. 

" Our girls need good sound all-around work, work 
suited and conducive to health, etc. ,, 



Under present conditions we believe that the con- 
servative attitude of the majority of the institutions 
which include colleges, private schools and a small 
percentage of high schools, is the best for the future 
good of the girls and of athletics. 

Audiences. — A question that always arises in con- 
nection with contests is whether they shall be open 
to the general public. The majority favor audiences 
which are selected by invitation and not by purchase 
ticket. The majority also favor limiting invitations 
to men who are members of the girls' families or of 
the faculty. Some schools issue all of the invitations 
to men in the name of the school and carefully super- 
vise the list. Unfortunately in the high and normal 
schools, with a few exceptions, no such care is taken, 
admission being by purchase, so that any one is ad- 
mitted. As a result many boys attend and by their 
noise, u rooting " and roughness discourage class 
songs and cheers by the girls. The class and institu- 
tional spirit which makes games so attractive may be 
quite lost where outside persons, who have no particu- 
lar interest, make up the bulk of the audience. 

At the present time there seems to be no justifica- 
tion whatever for pay games. Dues of members can 



COMPETITIVE AND PUBLIC GAMES 153 

be made to cover ordinary expenses, and the schools 
should provide the gymnasia and instructor. Aboli- 
tion of admission fees would do away with the abuses 
due to too many contests and to mixed audiences. 

Prizes. — This is becoming a serious matter in 
high school contests. There is a tendency to reward 
teams with articles of value instead of those rich in 
associations and inspiration, such as attaches to the 
college banner or cup which the class and not the 
team alone holds. The championship desire is thus 
becoming a work spirit for reward rather than a play 
spirit for the game itself. 

Essentials of a Good, Clean Game. — The general 
approval of inter-class contests narrows our problem 
to the best way in which they can be made educational 
and successful. There are at least three indispen- 
sable essentials: (1) Good, clean playing. (2) A 
well-conducted game. (3) An inspiring audience. 

The ability to play a good, clean contest depends 
upon the standard required by the school and upon 
the character of the training. Players in perfect 
physical condition area delight. With gathered-up 
strength and a fair amount of muscle, good mind, 
elastic step, good clear skin and bright eyes, they are 
in good spirits and good humor and not too confident. 
Contrast such a team with one which looks dull, 
languid and listless, with slouching demeanor, a sour 
or bored expression and a take-it-for-granted air! 
Every one knows how distressing it is to see a player 
collapse and be taken off the field or to have her put 
out of the game because of " poor condition." Such 



154 PRESENT CONDITIONS 

scenes are long remembered and do a great deal of 
harm to the cause of good sport. 

The appearance of the team has much to do with a 
good, clean game. If the color and style of the suits 
is uniform and they are simply made and well put to- 
gether, the hosiery black, and the hair dressed so it 
will not cause trouble and if players come on the field 
in an orderly way, a good impression is made at the 
start. Contrast this with a team that comes on the 
field in suits and hosiery and hair ribbons all colors 
of the rainbow, straggling in one at a time, some 
chewing gum, some fixing their hair, others stopping 
to talk or wrangling with each other over positions, 
etc.! Some players like to wear jewelry, which not 
only looks out of place but frequently causes injury. 
During one contest side combs were picked up twenty- 
eight times. These and other interferences detract 
from the appearance and good playing of the team. 

Good, clean playing depends upon another thing 
as important as fine physical condition, and that is 
the spirit of the game. A good spirit is shown by 
such things as the following: Allowing each team 
sufficient time to warm up ; absence of all complaints 
" that the other team has had more preliminary prac- 
tice " ; greeting of the teams by shaking hands, al- 
ways at least on the part of the captains, and at the 
close of the game by the winning team giving the 
school or class yell or song of the defeated team ; by 
refraining from uncomplimentary speech and action 
in case of interference or accidents ; by accepting de- 
feat without grumbling, complaining, or explaining 



COMPETITIVE AND PUBLIC GAMES 155 

or depreciating one's self and team; by accepting 
victory modestly and not using it to anger or irritate 
the defeated team. 

To obtain such a spirit, the thirst for victory must 
become secondary to the sense of joy and the exhilara- 
tion of play. Grim determination to win and irri- 
tability because an opponent is outplaying her in 
place of feeling the exhilaration of having a worthy 
antagonist, charge the atmosphere with the unmis- 
takable spirit of bad sport. The thirst for victory 
tempts a player to unfair and dishonorable acts, to 
take advantage of the rules, to attempt sly violations 
of the rules and even to make deliberate fouls. Un- 
fair acts are more possible here than elsewhere be- 
cause, in the excitement of the game and mass of play- 
ers, it is difficult to detect the unfairness. But whether 
called or not, it is the making of fouls that creates the 
bad spirit. This atmosphere frequently breaks out 
in personal antagonism, recrimination and anger and 
then a good, clean game is no longer a possibility. 

Essentials of a Weil-Conducted Game. — The sec- 
ond essential to a successful contest is a well-conducted 
game. This depends chiefly upon players and offi- 
cials. If the players are in good form and have the 
right spirit and the officials are competent and fair, 
the audience will also be orderly and well conducted. 

Officials are necessarily an important factor. In 
all of the institutions, barring high schools, with few 
exceptions women act as the officials. On the whole, 
men are better officials at the present time, for women 
have received no special training and a good player 



156 PRESENT CONDITIONS 

does not necessarily make a good official. Women are 
also less exact, less firm and less businesslike in run- 
ning off games. 

It will not be possible to have good, clean, well- 
conducted contests unless certain conditions are main- 
tained during practice. These may be summarized 
briefly: Compulsory gymnastics for every girl who 
plays in a contest and limitation of the number of 
contests to an average of three per season (this does 
not include practice games within the school) ; aca- 
demic standing above sixty-five, so a proper balance 
between athletics and study may be maintained and 
making the team may be considered an honor ; form 
as well as skill and good spirit as the basis of selection 
for the team; all arrangements for contests, rules, 
etc., under the direction of the school authorities. 

The Audience. — Hitherto very little attention has 
been paid to the contribution the audience makes to 
the game. Much can be made of this in institutional 
contests in a way not possible in professional games. 
It is of the first importance to interest the audience. 
Too many teams think they are doing the audience a 
favor merely to admit them, then they put up a poor 
game which many cannot understand. It is a good 
plan for pupils to seat themselves among the audience 
in such a way that they can explain the game and 
interest the spectators in it. When women so largely 
make up the audience this is most necessary. 

A good visible scoreboard, designation of opposing 
teams by color of suits, careful announcement of fouls 
and of the points scored so the audience can hear, will 



COMPETITIVE AND PUBLIC GAMES 157 

help to interest it. One college gives a two-minute 
talk to the audience, explaining what teams are play- 
ing, what the prize is, which goal belongs to each team 
and how the game is scored. 

The second need is to please the audience. The use 
of colors and other decorations, of songs and musical 
cheers and of demonstrations of class spirit is espe- 
cially helpful in doing this. 

The officials can also contribute to the good con- 
duct of a contest by keeping the audience in bounds, 
prohibiting hissing and catcalls, discourtesy to play- 
ers, and by starting the games on time and having 
them played without unnecessary interruptions. It is 
a great pleasure for an audience to be fresh for the 
game instead of tired out with a long wait. On one 
occasion when contests had just been introduced in 
one of the colleges, about half the audience were late, 
thinking a " girls' game would not start on time." 
They were much chagrined and wanted the first half 
played over. 

By attention to these details the school gives to the 
audience not only pleasure but a deeper interest in 
games and creates among women an appreciation of 
good, clean sport while it also lessens the skepticism 
with which men regard women's activities — all of the 
utmost value to the development of a good standard 
of athletics. 

Athletic Organizations. — The most influential fac- 
tor in developing these essentials of contests is the 
athletic association, league or club. These organiza- 
tions are of two kinds, those within the institution 



158 PRESENT CONDITIONS 

to which only its students belong; and inter-scholastic 
and inter-collegiate associations to which the teams 
or pupils of the various schools belong. The financial 
responsibility assumed by some of them and the 
amount of social activity give them a wide influence. 
Complete control of contests, financial responsibility 
for them and absence of social activities tend to make 
them commercial organizations and to destroy their 
highest usefulness, by making contests, awarding 
prizes and stimulating competition displace all other 
functions. 1 

Field Days. — Of growing popularity in many in- 
stitutions are the field days. Their chief importance 
is the social opportunity which they furnish as well as 
the development of the esthetic sense. They bring to- 
gether not only the students and faculty but friends 
of the school or college and of the girls. The records 
made and prizes offered are of comparatively little 
value, as compared with this. They may also be a 
means of education and enjoyment to the audience if 
the athletic association is active and efficient. 

When field days were first introduced, indoor and 
outdoor meets were the type most popular. The 
former consisted entirely of gymnastic competitions, 
— ladder, horse, rope climbing, traveling and flying 
rings and other apparatus, contests ; relay, obstacle, 
club and other races; and broad and high jump, 
hurdles, etc. The outdoor meet included dashes, shot 
put, hurdles, relay races, etc. Basketball has now 
been added and in some instances hockey and baseball. 
1 For description of associations and their influence, see p. 103 ff. 



COMPETITIVE AND PUBLIC GAMES 159 

Field days leave much to be desired. It has been 
difficult to interest outside audiences of women who 
do not especially enjoy individual contests, for at the 
present time too much emphasis is placed upon indi- 
vidual events and not enough on class events and team 
play. The average field day is frequently not repre- 
sentative of the entire department and is lacking in 
variety and beauty, for such individual events as 
broad jump and shot put do not possess either to a 
marked degree. There is also an absence of fun and 
exhilaration. 

The ideal field day could with advantage substitute 
for such individual events as shot put, hammer throw, 
etc., which are tests of strength and for which records 
already exist, events emphasizing skill, grace and the 
esthetic features. A field day should represent the 
entire work of the physical education department. 
Gymnastics, by class exhibitions, marches, Maypole 
or folk dances, etc. ; athletics, by team and class 
games such as basketball, hockey, tennis, etc. ; and 
such individual contests as hurdles, relay races, and 
short dashes as may be needed for interest and 
variety. 

The following outlines of field days show how 
limited some of these still are and also indicate the 
possibilities : 

School A — Outdoor meet — including competitive 
games, races and exhibition of gymnastics ; basketball 
game between house and day pupils for a cup. 

School B — Making of records in running, jump- 
ing, etc. ; basketball game, luncheon out of doors, 



160 PRESENT CONDITIONS 

basketball dinner in the evening, presentation of cup 
by the athletic association. 

School C — Forty-yard dash, running broad jump, 
relay race, running high jump, basketball throw, 
gymnastics, shot put, potato race, basketball game, 
luncheon out of doors. 

School D — Military drill, figure march, track and 
field events including dashes, hurdles, shot put, broad 
and high jump and relay races. 

The following rules and regulations for a tourna- 
ment day show how well such events may be prepared : 

" I. In order for a class to compete in a given sport 
the following number of entries must have been received 
at the gymnasium office not later than October the 
seventh : 

1. Basketball 12 

2. Field hockey 15 

3. Tennis 6 

4. Tether-ball 4 

" No class shall be allowed to compete if before 
Tournament Day the number of regularly practising 
members drop below the above requirements. All ap- 
plications must be qualified by the Department of Physi- 
cal Training. 

" II. A cup shall be awarded to the class winning the 
greatest number of points, the championship value of 
events to be as follows: 



1. Basketball, 1st place 7 points; 2d place 5 points. 

2. Field hockey " " " " " " " 

3. Tennis " " 3 " " " 3 

4. Tether-ball " " " " " " " 

" The cup shall not be the property of any one class, 
but shall remain permanently in the gymnasium, the 



COMPETITIVE AND PUBLIC GAMES 161 

numerals of successive winning classes to be inscribed 
upon it. 

" III. Two hours of practice each week shall be re- 
quired of every one entering any of the organized sports. 
Failure to comply with this rule means disqualification. 

" IV. Every member of a class team shall be awarded 
her class numerals and the initial letter of the sport in 
which they were won. 

" Judgment in awarding positions on the various class 
teams shall be based on official record as follows: 1. 
Health. 2. Submission to discipline. 3. Technical 
skill." 

Summary. — From the data submitted by the vari- 
ous schools it would seem that the matter of inter-class 
contests in the colleges and most of the private schools 
is an important element, is well under control and is 
exerting considerable influence on the total life of the 
school. In some of the private schools, high schools 
generally and political and social institutions, the 
problem has not been squarely faced and many dan- 
gers exist. Recognition, regulation and proportion 
are far more necessary at this stage of the develop- 
ment of athletics than is suppression, for contests 
have their own value and place in social education and 
the tendency is to increase rather than diminish this 
value. 



PART III 
METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 



CHAPTER VIII 

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS FOR GAMES AND 

CONTESTS 

To teach games so as to develop character and 
social spirit, within the brief time at command and so 
as to retain the play interest, is the real problem of 
the instructor. It is difficult to offer satisfactory- 
general suggestions, since each instructor has more i 
or less " her own way of teaching." Nevertheless, in 
games used for educational purposes it is necessary 
that attention be given to many details other than 
mere teaching of rules. From our varied experience 
and that of co-workers we have found that certain 
methods have been most effectual. Our suggestions 
are the result of constant experiment, different meth- 
ods having been tried with different groups of girls in 
all kinds of institutions and the results compared. 

Minor Games.— The full value of the use of ath- 
letic games for educational purposes as well as for 
recreation, we have found is best brought out by the 
combined use of the highly organized games with what 
are called minor athletic games. The minor games 
which we suggest as combinations possess a high de- 
gree of team work and have a strong social organiza- 
tion. In schools one highly organized game a season, 
varied with one or more minor games, is a good plan. 

165 



166 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 

The minor games are less difficult to learn and are not 
taken so seriously as are the more highly organized 
games, so they quicken the interest and stimulate the 
play spirit. They can frequently be played in a 
smaller place and in less time. A baseball practice of 
less than an hour is not very profitable for beginners 
and not satisfactory to players. 

Among the minor games used successfully in com- 
bination with basketball, baseball and hockey are 
polo — hand polo, wicket polo and water polo all being 
desirable ; volley-ball, long-ball, captain-ball, pass- 
ball, battle-ball, center-ball and many other related 
games of ball. 

Lacrosse ranks more with hockey and highly or- 
ganized games, but is very little played by women. 
It may be included with great profit where the out- 
door space will permit but is not possible in city 
spaces. It is a game schools should consider with 
more favor. 

These and many other minor games, which will 
occur to the reader, make a desirable variation with 
those more particularly discussed here. 

Instructors. — Opinions differ as to the prominence 
of the instructor on the floor or field. As a rule, 
players do better work and develop initiative, self- 
reliance and other qualities more rapidly when they 
are not dominated by her presence and personality. 
Some instructors go about the field talking constantly, 
commanding here, admonishing there or attracting 
the girls' attention by calling while the game is in 
progress. This distracts players, prevents them 



GENERAL SUGGESTIONS FOR GAMES 167 

from planning plays and makes them dependent and 
self-conscious. The instructor should be the least con- 
spicuous person, talking in a low conversational tone 
to a player while the ball is in play in some other part 
of the field or stopping the game and calling a foul 
and explaining it. Where a player's faults are in 
violation of the rules or cause her to make bad plays, 
such as fumbling the ball, inaccurate throwing, etc., 
it is a good plan to criticise her publicly so she will 
learn to accept criticism with good spirit. On the 
other hand, if she has mannerisms or faults peculiar 
to herself and not likely to be held in common with 
other players, we have obtained better results by talk- 
ing to her alone about them. It is one thing to tell 
a girl before others that she fumbles a ball and quite 
another that she is selfish or cowardly. The other 
players have a common idea of fumbling the ball, but 
do not necessarily so easily or impersonally under- 
stand the other criticism. It is possible also to obtain 
impersonal criticism from class members. One in- 
structor required all class members, not participating 
in the practice game, to attend and at the next prac- 
tice they were asked to criticise one bad play and give 
the reason for its being such, irrespective of who made 
it. It is better that the instructor give commenda- 
tion or criticism directly to players than to others 
with the idea of having them repeat it to the players, 
a process through which much is frequently lost in 
both spirit and accuracy. 

When for any reason the game lags, the instructor 
can become an inspiration by getting into it herself, 



168 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 

for players are always ambitious to score against 
her. 

It is unwise to permit one player to instruct an- 
other, unless at the instructor's suggestion. Even 
this is a doubtful exception, as players like to feel 
that they are doing equally well and such a method 
savors of criticism rather than of real instruction. 

Do not permit " answering back," and insist upon 
deference to decisions even if they are wrong. For 
this reason it is necessary that the instructor give in- 
telligent, accurate rulings and not opinions. 

Players should recognize each other's rights and 
all rights should be equal. Rights of weaker players 
who do not make the team are not respected when 
others take their practice hour or use all of the balls. 

" I can't " should be eliminated early, so that play- 
ers may become responsive. The instructor should 
endeavor to have a girl carry out her instructions 
but should not insist upon plays which it is impossible 
for the girl to make. 

An unfair or mean play should not go unnoticed on 
the field unless it is a temperamental matter to be 
dealt with individually. Some instructors think these 
tendencies will remedy themselves, but other players 
feel the injustice, and if they are not corrected there 
is a tendency to resort to similar methods. 

Do not grant requests to play coveted positions 
unless it is a " fun day." Granting such requests 
destroys discipline, gives rise to suspicions of par- 
tiality and hampers the instructor. This tendency 
is easily cured by assigning to such players positions 



GENERAL SUGGESTIONS FOR GAMES 169 

they least like. At first they may sulk and declare, 
" I won't play," but in a little while they take the 
advice of the old players : " Don't ask for a thing, 
just work for it." Trying players out in all positions 
is a very different thing from letting a girl play the 
position she likes even when it is not the one in which 
she plays best. 

Although not called upon to explain changes in 
line-up or criticism of plays, the instructor should 
always be ready to do so, as it keeps a good spirit to 
have the faith and expectations of the players justified. 
Nothing is more detrimental to the spirit and democ- 
racy of games than the superior cock-sureness of the 
instructor who, when asked for a reason for things, 
says, " Because I ask you to do it," or, " because I 
want it done that way." This attitude does not edu- 
cate players. One instructor in a school of physical 
education called players out because they dropped 
their bats after a hit. He insisted that they carry 
them with them to first. When the players protested 
that this was not in the rules, he flew into a rage, and 
said it was enough that he said so. An instructor 
who cannot discuss and explain rules, or who has not 
a rule for every decision, can never bring out char- 
acter through games, though it may come out in spite 
of such training. 

As instruction progresses, persistent faults or de- 
fects appear. A prescription card is of much help 
when the instructor is sure these faults are character- 
istic. Such a card may be given to each player, with 
the request that she make a special effort to overcome 



170 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 

the faults specified. In one college, when the plan 
was first tried a disaffection immediately appeared 
and then quite as suddenly disappeared. Afterward 
it was found that each girl thought she was the only 
one selected and did not wish the others to know. 
When it was understood that every player had re- 
ceived a card, the attitude immediately changed. 
Some of the girls posted them in their mirrors as a 
constant reminder. 

The following is a typical card for basketball : 

Name: 

Game : 

Physical: Inaccuracy — throw too hard, run too hard. 
Practise jumping, starts and circle throwing. 

Mental: Lack of attention; reaction too slow; bad 
judge of distances. Practise line work; catching and 
throwing ball from wherever get it. 

Social: Co-operation is weak — practise with forward 
and center. Lacking in loyalty — refrain from laying 
the blame on others for your bad plays. Vanity — as 
shown by choice of positions. Selfishness — sulk when 
reprimanded or position is changed. 

Esthetic: Stand badly while waiting for ball; squeal 
when running; clap hands and call names to attract 
player's attention; open mouth when catching balls. 

A good list of don'ts for instructors to keep in 
mind includes: "Don't scold, nag, or show impatience ; 
don't use sarcasm or ridicule ; don't compare players 
with each other; don't be too self-assertive and con- 
ceited; don't make promises; don't pass judgment too 
quickly; don't be afraid to admit yourself in the 
wrong; don't be afraid to speak out; don't teach 
plays you are not sure of yourself. 



95 



GENERAL SUGGESTIONS FOR GAMES 171 

Instructors as Officials. — In inter-scholastic con- 
tests, instructors of the contesting teams should not 
officiate, even by mutual agreement. It is almost im- 
possible for them to see faults equally well for both 
teams and there is a strong temptation to " even up 
fouls " if one side calls more than the other. Even 
when there is a fair spirit, players and audience have 
an air of suspicion. Where inter-class games are 
played the danger is not so great, as both teams be- 
long to the same instructor. It is preferable, how- 
ever, that instructors train some of their pupils to 
act as officials. They are thus free to observe the 
playing and observe players under competitive stress 
and in team work. 

During a contest, there are instructors who 
" coach " on the side lines, give tips, direct the 
play, criticise decisions, are much in evidence and 
talk about the teams and their playing. There 
are no strong enough words of criticism for such 
practices, which make a good spirit and fair play 
impossible. 

Never as instructor or official is it wise to tell a 
player immediately after a contest that she is re- 
sponsible for winning or losing a game. Disap- 
pointed and inefficient instructors sometimes seek in 
this way to lay the blame on the team. Furthermore, 
do not allow other members of the team to tell her so. 
If she has played well enough to make the team and 
been rightly trained, she will discover it ; if not, it will 
take more time and coolness to explain than is pos- 
sible at such a time. 



172 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 

Rules. — Thoroughly know the game and teach all 
that is known, including history and value of game, 
reasons for the rules and their changes, etc. 

Line up a class in athletics at attention, as is done 
with gymnastic classes. This assures full attention 
and an opportunity to see that all are in good form. 
This is most important in settlement and other classes 
where players like to wear jewelry, high-heeled shoes, 
etc., which are not always discovered in the rush of 
play. A two- or five-minute quiz on rules, with the 
class in line, is a good practice. 

Classify and teach rules in groups of similarity, 
giving but part each lesson. Avoid going over the 
whole game at once. It is easier to adjust individ- 
uals and teach the necessary preliminaries before 
the excitement of play begins, if players work 
together on simpler parts of the game, throwing, 
catching, running, sliding, batting up and catch- 
ing, etc. 

A practical division of playing time for new play- 
ers is one which gradually increases the playing time 
and shortens the preliminary practice and rule read- 
ing, as players gain in endurance and skill : 

10 minutes: (Basketball, throwing, running, passing, 
jumping. 

(Baseball, throwing, batting, catching. 

(Hockey, stick positions and swings.) 
5 minutes: Play. 

10 minutes: Rest — rule instruction and verbal quiz. 
10 minutes: Play. 
5 minutes: Rest. 
5 minutes: Game for points. 



GENERAL SUGGESTIONS FOR GAMES 173 

Managers. — An easy way to distinguish between 
the duties of manager and captain is to remember 
that the manager controls or arranges all details off 
the field, while the captain has charge of the team and 
gives all instructions on the field during the game. 

The main qualifications of a manager are execu- 
tive ability, mastery of details, tact and a genius for 
getting other people to work. Where schedules for 
games are arranged, she should be sufficiently clear- 
headed to always protect her own team and should 
be one whom all the players like. 

Her duties are to see that all of the details of the 
game are arranged, including decorations, programs, 
music, cheers, leaders, ushers, good support for her 
team, well-drilled rooters or encouragers and that en- 
thusiasm and good spirit exist. She also arranges 
schedules of games and is responsible for the good 
appearance of her team. She selects referees and 
umpires, and the scorer and time-keeper subject to 
the approval of the referee. 

Captains. — The captain should have personality 
and self-control and not irritate the players with her 
commands. Her duties are to give the signals and 
see that they are instantly obeyed; address all offi- 
cials ; select the team plays ; change players and posi- 
tions ; get the best out of the players, by suggestion 
rather than by criticism; hold the players together 
in team work and steady their plays ; and work out 
new plays and carry out the instructor's orders. The 
captain has charge of all preliminaries such as tossing 
for goal or choice of field. She also represents the 



174 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 

team in all discussions, arrangements or agreements 
when the game is in progress. 

Officials. — In the games under discussion officials 
include umpires, referees, time-keepers, scorers and 
goal tenders. These are in charge of the game from 
the time it starts until the final score is announced. 
The referee is the superior officer and is primarily 
responsible for the good conduct of the game. The 
duties of umpires are primarily to call fouls or put 
players out. It is essential in selecting umpires that 
they be persons (1) who will not become so much in- 
terested in the game that they will forget to see fouls ; 

(2) who will be strict and impartial in calling fouls; 

(3) who will call fouls clearly and indicate their 
nature; and (4) who will keep their tempers and not 
be overbearing in making their decisions understood. 

When training girls to become officials the follow- 
ing are among the qualifications the instructor should 
seek to develop : 

(1) Knowledge of rules in letter and spirit. (2) 
Backbone and character. (3) Ability to interpret 
rules and enforce decisions in such a way as to leave 
the team and audience in a fair frame of mind. (4) 
Ability to convince others that the decisions are fair. 
(5) Ability to control the audience as well as the 
players. (6) Kindness, courtesy, dignity and a busi- 
nesslike attitude. 

Having these qualifications, the duties seem clear : 

(1) Stick to the interpretation of a rule unless it 
is clearly wrong. (2) Never permit argument. 
Listen to the captain's calling of a foul and allow or 



GENERAL SUGGESTIONS FOR GAMES 175 

refuse to allow the foul promptly and proceed to play. 
Allow no one but the captain to speak. (3) Never 
threaten a player or team. Do not lose temper but 
persist in a quiet, dignified way, and if the game can- 
not proceed in an ordinary fair way, call it off. (4) 
Never permit bullying by team members or officials 
or sulky play which delays the game. (5) Demand 
instant recognition of the violation of a rule. (6) 
Abstain from fault-finding. The official's business is 
to make decisions, not to lecture players. (7) Be 
ready to explain in a few words a questioned rule and 
be willing to produce the rule, but know the rules well 
enough, so reference need not be made to them when 
giving decisions. (8) Be impartial in decisions and 
do not exceed authority or make it obnoxious. (9) 
Do not be too friendly with the players. (10) When 
officiating in such games as basketball and hockey do 
not stand rooted to the spot; follow the players, so 
you can see the plays. (11) Do not get interested in 
the game but follow each individual play. (12) Do 
not undertake to officiate unless there is a thorough 
understanding about the rules under which the teams 
are to play and unless the official is familiar with 
them. Patching up rules and differences, so the game 
can go on when there has been a misunderstanding, 
leads to bad feeling and inefficient officials. 

The scorer is not generally considered of much 
importance and is seldom trained to do her work well. 
The score form provided for the various games, but 
so often ignored, should be used and the number and 
nature of the fouls and the player making them indi- 



176 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 

catcd. This helps an audience to understand the 
game and is a valuable record for the instructor. 
Scorers who are also players are ordinarily the best. 
Keeping a baseball score is so complicated that it 
should be made a matter of careful instruction. 
Scorers should also know how to work out percent- 
ages, averages, etc., so that the records will be of 
interest to the players and to the school. 

There is a prevailing belief that any one can keep 
time, and that a variation of a few seconds is im- 
material. This is a great mistake and may lead to 
bad feeling and charges of unfairness. It is better 
for a timer to use her own watch or a stop-watch which 
she understands. It is a good plan to invite some 
one who is interested in the opposing team to keep 
time with the official timer. Only the latter's decision 
is accepted, but it is a pleasant little courtesy and 
holds the official timer up to the mark. The farther 
removed the timer is from the audience, the more 
accurate is her work. Her whistle should be dis- 
tinguishable from that of other officials, otherwise 
players do not quickly recognize the time call. 

Timers and other officials should work in harmony, 
lest the timer " extend the time so as to right the de- 
cisions of a distasteful referee." Timers should be 
honest and certainly at all important games should 
be experienced. There is a strong temptation to 
throw the game or even up the score when one side is 
being beaten, by adding time. Absolute accuracy 
should be insisted upon and small errors never coun- 
tenanced or excused. Class members who do not make 



GENERAL SUGGESTIONS FOR GAMES 177 

the team and have the spirit of fair play may well be 
trained to become timers. 

Field Etiquette. — Select competent, impartial of- 
ficials. If there are none among women, train some. 

Play with teams that abide by rules and play a 
good, clean game. Do not play with every one for 
the sake of a game. If a mistake is made do not 
" slug back." If teams that play a clean game would 
consistently refuse to compete with those who play 
" dirty ball," a great improvement would be made. 
There is too much getting even at the expense of the 
sport itself. A good plan is to watch a team play 
before challenging it. In inter-class games these 
conditions do not arise. 

It is a good plan to have each contesting team go 
off the field between halves and rest alone. Do not 
permit talking to the audience or to the other team. 
Give them a real rest during which time the instructor 
may talk to them, encouraging or shaking up the 
team. 

Numerous protests of decisions during a game are 
bad form. In the nature of the game itself every 
wrong cannot be seen and righted. When an official 
is manifestly incompetent and unfair, do not have her 
again. The great desire to play at any cost permits 
the toleration of poor officials. 

The attitude of rival teams on the field should be 
friendly and not that of " hated rivals " until one 
team has won, when it so often changes to magnanim- 
ity on one hand and sullenness on the other. Teams 
that are not friends to start with should not play. 



178 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 

Extend every courtesy in the way of quarters, rest 
and attention and avoid hampering a team by giving 
it poor facilities. Reserving the best seats for the 
friends of visiting teams, and other similar small 
courtesies, add much to good spirit. 

We are confident that these few, among many sug- 
gestions that might be made, are not only essential 
to good training but will go a long way toward pre- 
venting " scenes " at match games, bad feeling and 
bad sportsmanship, and will make for cleaner playing 
and a group interest in group contests. 



CHAPTER IX 
BASKETBALL 

VALUE OF THE GAME 

Basketball, as compared with many other games, 
is new, having been invented in 1891. This is the 
most popular athletic game for girls. Nearly every 
school and institution having any facilities now has 
this game, and there are also many independent 
clubs. 

There are three recognized sets of rules, and these 
have so many variations that the game is sometimes 
recognizable chiefly by the ball. These are Spald- 
ing's Rules for Men, called the Official Basketball 
Guide ; the Intercollegiate Rules, used chiefly by men ; 
and Spalding's Rules for Women, adopted in 1899 
and used by a number of secondary schools and 
colleges. 

Comparison of Rules. — In Rules for Women, the 
field is divided into three equal parts. Forwards and 
guards must remain in the end sections, and centers 
in the middle section. It is a foul to cross these 
lines. This necessitates additional officials called 
linesmen. The maximum field contains 6000 square 
feet. As many as nine may play on a side. The 
time of the halves is fifteen minutes. Dribbling is 
defined as bouncing or touching the ball more than 

179 



180 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 

three times in succession after it has been caught with 
both hands, unless it is touched by some other player. 
Unquestionably the most important regulations are 
that two hands on the ball are necessary to secure it ; 
the ball may not be batted or snatched or taken 
away from any player's hands ; no guarding may be 
done over the body of an opponent who has the ball ; 
and the ball may not be held longer than three 
seconds. 

In Rules for Men there are no lines, the men play- 
ing wherever there is an opportunity. The maximum 
field is 4000 square feet. The number of players on 
a side is limited to five. Any one may throw for goal. 
Dribbling is defined as a play in which the player 
advances more than two steps while throwing, rolling 
or bouncing the ball against one or both hands one or 
more times without the assistance of another player. 
The ball may be batted or snatched from another 
player's hands, but not more than one player from 
each side may tackle the ball at the same time, if a 
player from the opposite side is also tackling it. 
There is no limit to the time a ball may be held. 

The introduction of lines and the adoption of a 
non-interference game (by prohibiting snatching the 
ball and close guarding) are the essential differences 
between the two sets of rules, which have provoked 
discussion and materially changed the game. The 
alleged advantages of the other changes do not ap- 
pear to be of sufficient importance to justify their 
discussion. 

It is claimed that these two changes prevent 



BASKETBALL 181 

fatigue, roughness and injury, lessen personal contact 
and further team work. Are such claims justified by 
the conditions ? A typical statement of the advocates 
of Rules for Women is this : 

' Under men's rules our girls were not successful. 
They became exhausted before time was called, due to 
the excitement of the game, but as well to loss of energy 
owing to confused and purposeless movements, a char- 
acteristic of the schoolgirl age." Or, " Since each 
player is limited to a certain territory, severe strain is 
alleviated." 

The Rule of Lineball. — Let us take, first, the use 
of lines. The average basketball court does not ex- 
ceed 2000 square feet. In some favored institutions, 
like colleges and private schools where there are out- 
of-door courts, they are larger, but the majority of 
girls play in public schools, city gymnasia and in city 
private schools. There are many courts having less 
than 1200 square feet. According to Rules for 
Women, this is divided into equal blocks, and in this 
small area three girls are expected to remain and 
play! 

But were the area three times as great, we believe 
that the use of lines has been advocated under a mis- 
understanding of the possibilities of the unlimited 
field. " Lineball " has really been created to meet the 
defects of supervision and of training rather than the 
defects of the game itself, and at a great educational 
cost — that of highly organized team work. 

At one university where supervision and training 
are of a high standard, an annual average of one 



182 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 

hundred girls have played the game by Rules for 
Men for the past nine years, and during that time not 
one serious accident, not one broken bone, and not 
one collapse from overplaying have resulted. It has 
also been used in various settlement classes with the 
same good results, but always under careful direc- 
tion and supervision. Rough play has been almost 
entirely eliminated, so much so that the fouls, though 
carefully called for this, average about four per 
game during contests. In other institutions where 
much attention was given to education and team work, 
guards and forwards rarely crossed the center line, 
except when making a five-girl team play, or in an 
emergency, simply because it was bad playing. Line- 
ball increases the number of fouls. We have seen as 
many as twenty fouls called for crossing the lines, so 
that the game was made up chiefly of fouls. Some 
players are willing to commit a foul to which no 
odium attaches, like crossing the line, in order to have 
the ball go up in the center if their side has a superior 
center, rather than have a good forward keep the 
ball at the other end. 

These good results have been brought about by 
training the girls to play their own positions and of 
their own volition to stay where they can play or 
protect their goals ; not because they cannot go down 
the field, but because it is bad team work. Of course 
they do not do this at first, but it is made a part of 
their training. Inhibition is invaluable as an ele- 
ment of team work as compared with prohibition. 

Nothing can be more harmful than to have players 



BASKETBALL 183 

straining across lines in every conceivable position, 
trying to maintain their balance, without committing 
a foul. This is an unnatural expression, without joy 
or exhilaration, while running freely for a ball con- 
tains both. One player says : " Nothing tires me so 
much as the strain of balancing across a line." An- 
other says : " I am exhausted by the cramped-up 
quarters and nervous expectancy." Another thing, 
when players give so much attention to getting as 
near the line as possible without going over, they do 
not follow the ball or game and play " ragged ball." 
Where lines are used, the placing of as many as nine 
people on a side, as sometimes happens, is a dis- 
advantage, for they are often only in the way of each 
other and make team work impossible. 

How much of the exhaustion is due to an unre- 
stricted field and how much to unscientific training? 
Under Rules for Women do players better direct their 
energies or are the opportunities for its expression 
simply limited? Are players taught enough real 
team work to equally distribute the responsibility or 
do one or two players do most of the work? These 
questions are not so easily answered, for we have seen 
better results under Rules for Men than under those 
for women, and vice versa, depending on many things 
other than the rules used. 

There is an erroneous conception of what consti- 
tutes team work. Simple passing of the ball, irre- 
spective of plan or method, does not, in our judgment, 
constitute team work. The best team work, under all 
rules, requires guards and forwards voluntarily to 



184 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 

play near their own goal and not to recklessly follow 
the ball, leaving their own territory unprotected. It 
is just as possible to teach this under one set of rules 
as under another, making limitation by lines unneces- 
sary. That this principle of good playing is vio- 
lated so much under Rules for Men is the fault of 
training rather than of rules. In order to win 
games, beauty, science and education are sacrificed 
and the players resort to any play which will win. 
Massing players at one end, combining the strength 
of all the team against a few, getting in the way, etc., 
use of brute force rather than skill, are frequently a 
part of the tactics taught where victory is the only 
object. 

Instead of possessing a superior advantage, the 
greatest disadvantage of Rules for Women is that a 
high order of team work, which equalizes strain and 
trains individuals to work together, is impossible. 
" Team work is as possible under women's as under 
men's rules," say its advocates. A reference to the 
diagrams on pages 202 ff. will show how impossible 
three- and five-girl plays, on a mathematical basis, 
are with lines. Why is it so difficult to teach girls 
indoor baseball? One reason is that the order of team 
work required is very complex. Why do one or two 
or three women work well together, but when increased 
to a small group they fall out? Because the team 
work they have been taught is very elemental, requir- 
ing few adjustments and little planning. Two for- 
wards, having the same duties and tactics, may work 
well together, but add a center and guard, and the 



BASKETBALL 185 

discriminative and associative processes are much in- 
creased. Many of the three-girl plays, even among 
three forwards, are not possible owing to limited 
space and similarity of positions which give little 
variety in tactics. The tendency is to have one for- 
ward throw most of the goals, and all the others 
accept the simple duty of " feeding " her the ball. 
As for lessening strain, the guard or center may 
stand a few feet away and see her forward strain- 
ing for the ball and be powerless to co-operate, al- 
though the expenditure of energy on her part would 
be much less. 

In addition to preventing team work and not being 
adaptable to a small field, " lineball " has other disad- 
vantages. It is a less open and attractive game. 
Short passes, aimless passing among forwards to get 
rid of the ball and dribbling are encouraged. While 
more persons can play, they frequently do little more 
than stand around in each other's way. This was 
the case in one game played by nine on a side on a 
900-square-foot court. Add to this number an ad- 
ditional linesman, and the floor is pretty full and the 
game somewhat confusing to an audience. In play- 
ing without lines, the apparent disadvantage of ac- 
commodating a smaller number can be met in prac- 
tice by playing ten girls and then have ten others 
play while the first ten rest. In an hour and twenty 
minutes, forty different girls can be played. Eight- 
een persons are usually too many for the average 
instructor to teach at one time, especially young 
girls. 



186 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 

The Non-interference Rule. — From the educa- 
tional and esthetic standpoints, it is a matter of won- 
der that a committee on rules could have chosen so 
detrimental a rule as lines and at the same time have 
selected so beneficent a one as prohibiting snatching 
or batting the ball out of another's hands, — a rule 
which makes the so-called non-interference game. 
This is designed to prevent injury and rough play, 
which it does, and it also accomplishes part of the 
good results claimed for lines — namely, preventing 
fatigue — for it makes the game one of skill rather 
than of strength. In the nature of things and by 
comparison with other games, the person having the 
ball should in all equity be permitted to play it. As 
a matter of ethics and sportsmanship this rule should 
be universally adopted by both men and women. A 
number of boys' schools have prohibited basketball 
because of the interference game, for a great part of 
the rough play and bad feeling engendered is due to 
it. Officials are confused and lax in their decisions 
because of it. It is not the man who can plan to get 
the ball first, but the man who can pull it away, who 
wins. With the adoption of a non-interference rule, 
we believe Spalding Rules for Men offer the greatest 
opportunities for both men and women for developing 
character and the mental, moral and social qualities 
so essential to good citizenship. 

Disadvantages of Rules for Women. — One reason 
a fair test of both sets of rules has not been made is 
because the game has not been carefully studied under 
competent supervision and instruction, and much 



BASKETBALL 187 

more is claimed for Rules for Women than can be 
substantiated. For instance, one writer says: 
" Women's rules make the game one of enjoyment, 
for the girls are able to play the full time, and there 
is an increased number anxious to play." 

First, there is no proof whatever that the game is 
really more enjoyable under one set of rules than an- 
other. From such testimony as we have gathered from 
girls who have played under both sets of rules, they 
favor Rules for Men, and have often refused to play 
under Rules for Women. On the whole, it is the 
game itself and not one set of rules or another which 
attracts them. They are rather indifferent to discus- 
sions of rules, for they simply want to play. 

Second, " full time " is misleading. It is our ob- 
servation that players are perfectly willing to play 
shorter halves with more rests in between, if the total 
practice time remains the same. It makes not the 
slightest difference if it is ten or fifteen minutes, so 
long as they get enough work, and it is equal for all. 
Rules for Men provide that by agreement the time of 
the halves may be changed and as short a period as is 
desired played. 

Although the movement for Rules for Women has 
served to focus attention on the need for uniformity, 
their adoption has really established a dangerous 
precedent and complicated the situation. There are 
not only Spalding Rules for Men, Intercollegiate 
rules, high school rules and protective association 
rules, but in addition to Rules for Women there are 
modified Rules for Women which have been adopted 



188 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 

by certain schools and called by the school name. 
There is also " basquette." In other words, any 
school dissatisfied with the rules feels at liberty to 
change them, a situation not found in other games. 

Where competitive games are played, such varia- 
tions in rules become a serious matter. The first 
question asked by teams wishing to compete is " What 
rules are used? " In many instances the only possi- 
ble compromise is to play one half of the game by 
one set of rules and the other half by another set. 
This makes one half fair to each side, but it makes the 
game unscientific, perplexing and distressing to an 
audience. Furthermore, the disagreements due to 
such an arrangement create bad feeling, and players 
invariably attribute their defeat to them. It is the 
worst possible practice for players to be in a position 
to blame rules for bad feeling and dirty playing. 

Is it not possible in conference to agree upon rules 
which will serve the purpose of both education and 
recreation and more successfully bring about a uni- 
form game, not necessarily a woman's game, but an 
educational, sportsmanlike game? When a game is 
widely played according to standard rules, the rules 
should be changed only by agreement, based upon 
wide experience and needs — not only of colleges, but 
of all institutions of learning and of civic institutions. 
The present Rules for Women have taken little or no 
cognizance of the needs of settlements, Y. W. C. A., 
playgrounds, roof and municipal gymnasia, etc., 
which are necessarily small and present a different 
problem. 



BASKETBALL 189 

METHODS OF TEACHING BASKETBALL 

Many of the following suggestions will seem ele- 
mentary, and to many doubtless will be superfluous. 
Each year a considerable group of people, without 
experience, and oftentimes without much training, 
undertake to teach this game. Aside from this, many 
girls play it without instruction and do not know 
where to obtain suggestions. Every rule has an ob- 
ject and serves a purpose both in the technique of 
the game and in character building. It is in the hope 
that these suggestions may be of some value to the 
groups mentioned and will simplify instruction, that 
they are given at what may seem to be unnecessary 
length. They are based upon Spalding's Rules for 
Men, with the single change of the non-interfer- 
ence rule, and are grouped as follows : Require- 
ments for the game; the green squad; duties 
and tactics of various positions; rules and team 
work. 

Requirements for the Game The physical re- 
quirements are a sound body, good heart and lungs 
and endurance. Anemic girls and working girls 
with poorly nourished bodies must be played with 
great care. Basketball almost doubles the demand 
on the heart, and the dangers of overwork can be 
diminished if the condition is known. The game is 
preferably played in loose gymnasium suits or short 
skirts and in gymnasium shoes. If played in street 
garb injuries are likely to result. The only para- 
phernalia needed are a sufficiently large level space, a 



190 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 

ball and two baskets and some paint or lime to mark 
off a court. 

Basketball cannot be played with less than five on a 
side, but a second center may be played on a large 
floor space. There are two forwards, two guards 
and one center. The two forwards play at one end 
and try to throw the ball into the basket, which is 
ten feet from the floor. The guards of the opposite 
team play at this same end against the forwards and 
try to get the ball and send it to the opposite end to 
their forwards, or try to prevent the forwards 
against whom they play from scoring. 

The Green Squad. — A group of small boys can be 
put on the floor, given a few simple rules and the game 
started. This is not a successful way of teaching 
girls. Before rules can be given and positions as- 
signed, they need to learn many things. Preliminary 
class work is needed to relieve shyness and awkward- 
ness and to stimulate the play spirit. The first thing 
is to teach them to throw. There are at least five 
advantageous ways : 

The ground floor ball designed to avoid tall, long- 
armed guards. This should be a long, hard drive to 
center, or a quick, snappy ball to the other forward 
or guard, always close to the floor. Avoid having the 
ball hit the floor at an angle so it will bounce. 

Side-arm ball, with unbent elbow and arm swung 
laterally to the body. Use all the back muscles. 
The object is to deliver the ball around the body of 
an opponent when she has her arms up for guarding 
overhead. 



BASKETBALL 191 

Overhead balls, with two hands over the head, start- 
ing the ball well back. This is effective with short 
opponents and in throwing goals. By jumping a 
little in delivering the ball a clean throw may easily 
be made. 

One- or two-hand ball, from shoulder to chest. 
This is a good goal throw, and may be used over the 
heads of short opponents. 

Ball passed with two hands around back of the 
thrower's body from right to left. This makes a 
good short pass, avoiding an opponent very cleverly, 
and is a good return from out of bounds. 

When choosing and making these various throws, 
teach players to look at their opponents and not 
where they intend to throw the ball. For instance, 
when intending to throw a high ball, some players 
roll their eyes upward, thus giving away their play. 

Each instructor should make a special effort to 
have players make as many different throws as pos- 
sible. If they know how to throw only one way, there 
is little variety to the game. The one throw they 
know is usually an underhand upward ball from the 
lap, which is slow and easily blocked. A variety of 
throws develops not only resourcefulness but discrim- 
ination and judgment. 

They are now ready to practise long and short 
balls. Long balls are those thrown so as to fall back 
of a player and prevent the opponent ahead of her 
from getting them. Short balls fall ahead, so as to 
prevent an opponent who is standing behind or along- 
side from running up and getting them. Each 



192 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 

player should aim to give the advantage to her own 
team. Throwing long and short balls necessitates 
good judgment and precision on the part of both 
thrower and catcher. These throws can be taught 
to classes in line. 

Line up the class and have one person at the other 
end of the gymnasium. When she throws the ball to 
the line have the entire line run forward or backward, 
according to the w r ay the ball is thrown — long or 
short. Throw swift balls along the floor and have 
the class line take the position of stopping them. 
Have it get under way quickly by practising starts 
and club relay races. Throw balls sharply to the 
end of the line over the heads of the players into the 
corner, instructing each one to make the shortest turn 
in that direction. Some will turn all the way around 
in place of the correct half -turn before they start. 
Have them practise running the length of the field 
on their toes, forward and backward, speed and bal- 
ance being the objects sought. Throw the balls high 
and insist upon their jumping for them and running 
up to meet them. Have them spin about on one foot 
without making progress, and throw the ball from 
whatever position they catch it. If there are three 
or four balls, large classes can be subdivided into 
short lines. The advantage of this work in class 
lines is that much more can be accomplished with 
large classes in a short time. The competitive ele- 
ment leads each line to observe the other and stim- 
ulates it to do its best. 

In addition to this line work, a necessary exercise 



BASKETBALL 193 

is throwing and catching balls before beginning to 
play. One cause of sprains and falls is that green 
players are put into the excitement of a game without 
knowing how to run, jump, slide or otherwise use 
their bodies. Green players have to get used to them- 
selves in action, to the floor, to the ball and to each 
other before they can begin to play. 

We have not emphasized class practice in dribbling 
or bouncing the ball, because the free, open throwing 
game is much better for the players, and is much 
prettier. 

One of the most effective ways of teaching guard 
work is to line the players up in a double line facing 
each other, with one person back of each line, to throw 
the balls. Have her throw the ball to a player in 
the line facing her and require the player to get the 
ball back to the thrower without the guards blocking 
it. The guard whose back is to the instructor does 
not try to block the ball until the forward receives it. 
This is to teach interference when the forward has 
the ball. In this way, the proper use of the hands 
and body, various styles of throwing and of blocking 
throws can be taught. 

An interesting way to teach accurate goal throw- 
ing is to line up the players in two rows — one at each 
goal. At a given signal number one of each team 
throws for goal. Immediately after throwing she 
picks up the ball, tosses it to number two and runs 
back to the end of the line ; number two does the same 
and so on, until all have thrown. The side making 
the largest number of goals in a given time, or when 



194 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 

its line is used up, wins. In this practice insist 
upon use of the various ways of throwing and dis- 
courage the lap throw, which is only good on a foul. 

There are one or two fouls to which special atten- 
tion should be called, before the girls begin to play. 
It is difficult to avoid holding and catching clothing 
because of the loose, baggy suits, and special training 
is needed to avoid such plays. It is difficult to detect 
elbowing — one of the most aggravating fouls. Play- 
ers should be taught to run with their elbows parallel 
with their bodies and not out at right angles. Some 
instructors even permit elbowing as a means of " keep- 
ing track of opponents." While not a foul, falling, 
rolling and sliding are to be discouraged. It is not 
only poor form, but injurious and prevents good, 
clean playing. Instruction in jumping, running and 
throwing will do much toward having one " play 
up." 

While this preliminary work is going on, in the 
first three or five lessons, depending on the greenness 
of the material, from five to fifteen minutes may be 
given to actual play. At the first practice there can 
hardly be any play at all ; at the second ten minutes, 
without doing more with the rules than to say " Do 
not run with the ball," or " Do not take it away from 
another " ; at the third increase the play time and give 
more rules. In the meantime have each player read 
the rules, and in the third or fourth lesson begin sys- 
tematic teaching. The first thing is to explain the 
field — not only the lines but their purpose. Encour- 
age questions and give quizzes, for they help to make 



BASKETBALL 195 

an intelligent game by having players understand the 
reasons for various regulations. For instance, if they 
know the purpose of the two-foot circle, it is easier 
to observe the rule. From about the fifth lesson on, 
care must be taken to teach new players their posi- 
tions. In the beginning some instructors even call 
fouls to teach forwards not to desert their goals and 
centers that they are the middle-men. When once 
players understand this and do it as a res\ilt of their 
own initiative, the result is a really beautiful game. 
Beginning with the fifth or seventh lesson, fouls 
should be called strictly. It may take too much time 
to have each one thrown, but they should be called 
and explained. 

This preliminary work is not a trivial matter. In 
addition to its educational value, it makes the players 
familiar with the atmosphere of the game ; it arouses 
the play spirit without burdening the mind too much 
with rules — a thing that discourages players who 
have but little interest in games ; and it enables the 
instructor to take a survey of the material and un- 
derstand her players. 

The green squad is now ready to learn something 
of the science of the game. 

Forwards. — Forward is perhaps the most impor- 
tant position. As a rule, she sets the pace. In train- 
ing, if there are some who need slower work or espe- 
cial attention or have mental or physical defects, they 
had better be tried here rather than on the active 
guard line or in the responsible center's place. This 
of course applies to preliminary training — the aim 



196 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 

being to develop all players. There is a belief that 
team work is not much needed by forwards. Goal 
throwing should be tried only when there is some 
chance of scoring, and that chance is often secured 
by rapid passes which confuse the guards. Com- 
pletely subjugate the desire of a forward to throw for 
goal under any and all conditions by explaining that 
it takes little head work to cage a random throw, but 
it does takes a great deal to get the ball in position 
to be caged. This develops unselfishness in the short- 
est time. A good method of instruction is to train 
one forward to play up field and the other back; in 
this way they come quickly to know where to find each 
other. 

A difficult thing to teach forwards is to follow a 
ball after they throw for goal and judge by its speed 
and direction where it will fall. Green forwards 
will stand as if in a trance, waiting to see what hap- 
pens. Sometimes when a ball bounces back to them 
they are too dazed to get it. 

In free throws emphasize the underhand throw. 
Its advantages are that the thrower can control the 
ball and is better able to judge of the necessary 
amount of force. Have the ball held in the same way, 
lacing same way, fingers in certain positions on the 
seams, etc. At least two or three forwards in each 
class should be trained to throw balls on fouls. When 
there is the regulation screen, caroming the ball 
should receive attention. 

Teach forwards to make short passes and to play 
to each other and to their center. Few girls are 



BASKETBALL 197 

strong enough for accurate long-distance throws. 
Skill in dodging should be made an especial part of 
the preliminary training. Give forwards all of the 
principles of guard work. This is often neglected, 
as many forwards only throw for goal and do not 
prevent guards from getting the ball to the other end. 
Hold forwards responsible for inaccurate throws, thus 
making it clear that it is not always the fault of a 
player who fails to catch the ball. 

Guards. — Guard work is the least popular, for 
they have most of the drudgery and little of the 
credit. A goal scored by any one counts and some 
encourage guards to throw for goal, which makes the 
game more complicated and increases the work of the 
guards. Guard work develops unselfishness and takes 
out vanity and other " hindering " qualities quicker 
than does any other position. No matter how many 
times a guard successfully blocks a ball, every goal 
scored by her opponent is " laid up against her." 

Train a guard to get the ball first ; next to block 
the ball or spoil the aim; and third, to jump quickly. 
Guards, unlike forwards, must be able to divine a 
move, and to closely follow the plays. The best posi- 
tion for guards on the toss-up at center is alongside 
the forwards; not in front, because this may make 
the forward foul ; and not behind, because it is a dis- 
advantage. It is important to keep another player 
from fouling. 

In a non-interference game, where the ball cannot 
be knocked out of the hands, guards may wave their 
arms and hands to spoil the aim or block a ball, but 



198 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 

cannot hit their opponents. Some players wave their 
hands rapidly in a small radius close to the eyes of 
an opponent, to prevent her seeing. This and similar 
tricks are against the spirit of fair play. 

Center. — In all-around team work the center has 
the most responsible position, requires the most en- 
durance, and height counts for more than elsewhere 
since she may jump and catch the ball with both 
hands and throw it or bat it. Quickness and ability 
are necessary to throw goals, but more emphasis 
should be placed on the ability to do team work than 
on good throwing. Centers require all of the skill of 
forwards and all of the tactics of guards. The cen- 
ter is the pivot of team work and requires the finest 
kind of a combination of qualities, for all members of 
the team rely most upon her. 

Rules. — Basketball rules need simplification. A 
good classification, which may be posted in the gymna- 
sium or copies distributed, is into those which govern 
the ball — those which govern players, and general 
rules. The penalties should be given in each case. An 
illustration of one which governs the ball is — a ball 
is out of bounds only when it has completely crossed 
the line ; of one which governs the player — there shall 
be no shouldering, kicking, etc., or rough play; of a 
general rule in case of a tie — the referee shall then 
order the game to continue until each side has made 
two points. When these rules, and especially the pen- 
alties, have been made clear, then officials and their 
duties and classification of fouls and keeping score 
may be taken up. 



BASKETBALL 199 

Another classification based on penalties may be 
used to advantage: (1) Fouls which give free throws ; 

(2) violations which give the ball to the other side; 

(3) violations which give the same side another throw; 

(4) general rules, as when goals count, disqualifica- 
tions, etc. Such groups, if explained together, avoid 
much confusion. Giving rules in sequence and using 
illustrations are helpful. 

Another detailed classification for teaching rules 
is : Fouls on the ball ; fouls on the person ; boundary 
rules ; rules for giving ball to the other side ; rules for 
returning ball to the same player; dead balls; scor- 
ing ; rules relating to officials ; and when ball is thrown 
up between two players. 

Team Work. — Nothing is so important in the social 
education of the individual through games as team 
work. Its absence means failure to develop the most 
important moral qualities. When a group of people 
play or work so well together that there is no friction 
and their combined activity, with all its variety, re- 
sults as accurately as though one person, unimpeded, 
had accomplished it, it is unmistakably the result of 
real team work. This implies on the part of each 
player ability to use her body accurately; a knowl- 
edge of each other's characteristics and style of 
play ; confidence in each other ; and a willingness to 
adjust herself. Jealousy, rivalry and distrust are 
fatal to team work. More than anything else team 
work develops each player and contributes to the 
beauty of the game from the spectator's point of 
view. 



200 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 

There are at least five things for which an in- 
structor should work: Coolness, quickness, accuracy, 
good judgment and self-control. The essential prin- 
ciple of team work is that each individual must be 
willing to sacrifice her chance of scoring for what she 
believes will be a sure throw by some other player. 
The pivot of success is the captain, who must be able 
to control herself and others, and who will discour- 
age star-playing and insist upon co-operation at all 
times. 

Quick, continuous, short, unexpected passes and 
getting rid of the ball quickly are the physical se- 
crets of effective team work. Some believe that two- 
or three-girl plays constitute all there is of team 
work. The A. A. U. rules contain this suggestive 
comment on team play : 

" Be sure to remember these points: ' Get out of your 
head the idea that your first thought should be the 
basket when you get hold of the ball. Get rid of the 
ball quickly; when the ball is coming to you have your 
eye out for getting rid of it at once to another player; 
don't wait till you get it and then look around; bear in 
mind that the rules have been formulated by students of 
the game and that their strictness is necessary to expert 
playing; don't think that the number of goals you shoot 
indicates your value to your team. The practice of 
scoring goals to the credit of individual players ought 
to be abolished^ they should be scored only in total to 
the credit of the whole team/ ' 

A difficult thing to impress upon players is to get 
the ball on the run and to pass it to a player who is 
making progress toward her goal. This frequently 



BASKETBALL 201 

gives a forward the chance to throw for goal before 
her guard can reach her. Girls are too much in- 
clined to wait for the ball to come to them and then 
throw it to some one who is standing still. 

A principle to be taught first, last and always is: 
When any opponent has the ball, never get away from 
your own opponent. Make it impossible for any one 
on the opposing team to receive or pass the ball. This 
is more often taught guards than forwards, but it 
applies to every player equally. There are no excep- 
tions until after the ball is thrown, then of course all 
make ready to get it. 

The reverse of this rule is equally true and equally 
strong. When your own side has the ball make 
every effort to get away. One of the difficulties is 
that instructors do not insist upon these rules, so 
there is much wild, purposeless playing. Digressions 
are allowed because occasionally a good play is made 
by violating the rule, but if every player without ex- 
ception stuck to this principle, some serious blunders 
would be avoided. Some players never do any think- 
ing or playing when the ball is at the other end of 
the field and are, of course, never ready. When the 
other side has the ball, the main thing is to prevent an 
opponent from getting it on a pass, rather than to 
put the whole energy into getting it oneself. 

The simplest way to teach team work is to begin 
in groups of three, using the triangle as the basis. 
It may be said of the illustrative team plays which fol- 
low that they cannot be carried out when the team 
is playing against opponents. Our repeated experi- 



202 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 

ments show that they can be carried out even in inter- 
class contests where both teams have been taught the 
same plays. In interscholastic contests the opposing 
team, not knowing the formation or signals, is fre- 
quently so confused by the rapidity and peculiarity of 
the plays, that the complicated five-girl plays are 
quite successful. But even when they are attempted 
and fail, the advantages of training remain. It is 
possible in a limited way to use the triangle for train- 
ing in " lineball," but the plays can rarely be made 
in a game. The three forwards do little more than 
exchange the ball, and cannot carry out a definite 
plan within the small space allotted to them. They 
cannot advance far enough to complete a play, and 
it is not possible to change off forwards with guards. 
The following series in the order of their progres- 
sion has been successfully used. There are many 
possible variations of these, but the following will 
illustrate the method. In the diagrams the solid 
lines indicate the runner, the broken arrows the 
ball. A, B, C 1 indicate the first 
play, and A, B, C 2 the second. 




Three players, A, B, C, are lined 
up about ten or fifteen feet apart 
in a triangle. A throws the ball to 
B and immediately runs straight 
across to X. B throws the ball to C, who throws it 
to A in her new place. A throws it to B and runs 
back to her former place, and the play is made all 



BASKETBALL 



203 



over again. When this can be done so rapidly that 
A is kept running constantly in order to get to her 
place in time to receive the ball again, the play is 
learned. 

II 

Line up players as in I. A 1 throws the ball to B 1 
and runs as before to X. B 1 throws the ball to C 1 , 
but instead of standing still runs across a little to one 
side of jB^s place. While B 1 is running towards 
C 1 , C 1 has thrown the 



2a> ; 



C 



V? 1 



\ \ 



\ \ 



V 

\ 



I 



y\ 



V 



\ 



<p\ 



B* 



A* 

A* 



ball to A 1 at X and has 

started for B^s place. 

B 1 and C 1 pass each 

other while A 2 has the 

ball. B 1 will arrive in 

C 19 s place in time to 

receive the ball again 

from A. When each 

player has changed 

places once they are 

ready for the second play indicated as (2). A 

throws the ball to B 2 and runs back again to her 

first place, B 2 throws the ball to C 2 and they again 

exchange places. A now has the ball and the play 

begins all over again. Every one should be in the 

place at which they began to play, if no error has 

been made. They stop only when they throw the 

ball, and always throw before starting to run again. 

When this is played well they are on a continual 

run except the instant they throw. The ball must 



204 



METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 



be thrown high enough to avoid the heads of the 
runners and accurately, for a dropped ball stops the 
whole play. 

Ill 

In the preceding play — each player ran opposite 
to her place. In this one the same throws are made, 
but the thrower runs to the unoccupied place. The 
girls call this practice " Pussy wants a corner." 

It consists of four series of changes, made con- 
secutively. The ball must be started as indicated or 
all will run around in a circle. Two things must be 
remembered : A always throws to B and B to C and C 
back to A. If this order is changed, a mistake has 
been made. Second, each player immediately after 
throwing takes the unoccupied space, never going 

straight to a point where 
another player stands as in 
No. II. 

(1) A throws to B and 
runs as before to X. B 
throws to C, but now X, the 
unoccupied space, is that 
vacated by ^, so B runs 
there. After C throws to A she sees that B's 
first place has now become vacant, and runs there. 
We are now ready for the second series and the 
positions are: 




C 1 



A 1 



B 



BASKETBALL 



205 



(2) A has the ball and throws as before to B 9 run- 
ning to X; when B gets the ball she throws to C and 
crosses straight over to the 
place just vacated by A, 
and C throws to A and goes 
down to the place vacated 
by B. The positions for the 
third series now are: 



X 



C 1 





(3) A throws to B and runs across ; B throws to C 
and then runs to the place vacated by A; C throws 

back to A and goes up to 
the place where B started. 
The positions for the fourth 
series now are: 
C 1 
A 1 B 1 

X 
(4) A throws to B and 
runs down to X; B throws to 
C and goes straight across 
to the place vacated by A 9 and 
C throws to A and runs to the 
place just vacated by B. The b\ 
players are now in the same 
position as when they first 
began the series and are ready 
to do the play all over in the 
same way. This play is not learned until they can 




206 



METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 



go through the whole four series at least three times 
without error or dropping the ball. 

I, II and III are the basis of all team work. No 
play, change or combination will appear in any 
team play whose principles are not found here, be it 
three- or five-girl plays. They teach the player to 
keep her head; to throw the balls without running 
with them ; to catch and throw promptly ; to change 
positions accurately ; to throw the balls from the posi- 
tion in which they are caught ; to hold the ball away 
from the body, etc. They offer the best practice for 
getting the ball out of corners and taking it down the 
field. They also teach the players to protect a weak 
or unoccupied part of the field, and to use every op- 
portunity. Players who have done this preliminary 
team practice well will unconsciously, during the ex- 
citement of the game, carry out these very plays, 

even with opponents against 
them, much to the delight of the 
audiences. 



^F 



yi 



IV 



G 



Q 



This series possesses the addi- 
tional advantage of using all of 
the team and of advancing the 
ball. Guard 1 has the ball near 
the basket, and throws to guard 2 
and runs ahead to receive the ball 
again. Then she throws to center and gradually 
leads her forward back, as she is the rear guard. The 
center throws to forward 1 , and not wishing to draw 



G 



G 



BASKETBALL 



207 



the down field forward away from goal runs down and 
receives the ball from the forward and then throws 
to forward 2 , or for goal, depending on the oppor- 
tunity. The positions may vary, but this is one of 
the most common and simplest forms of five-team 
play. In all of the plays where the ball is carried 
down the field, the number of changes made depends 
chiefly on the size of the field. Short passes can be 
practised by lessening the distances between positions. 



This series possesses the advantage of teaching a 
team as a whole to change positions rapidly, to pro- 
tect its field and to get away 
from its opponents. The cen- 
ter gets the ball under the 
basket, which the instructor 
has thrown. She then throws 
it to guard 1 , who throws it to O 2 ^ 
guard 2 . In the meantime the 
center has run down the field 
to receive the ball from guard 2 , 
who after throwing to her runs 
ahead. Center then throws to 
guard 1 , who has advanced the latter, passing the ball 
on to guard 2 . A little past center the forwards take 
the ball in the same way, and the center or forward 
nearest the basket throws for goal and starts the 
same play back. This should be done the length of 
the field three times in succession without error or 




208 



METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 



fumble before the instructor can be sure the girls 
know it. 

VI 

This is the same play as No. V except that the 
players cross over, which is No. Ill applied to five 
players. While rarely successful in contests where 
teams are equally matched, it is invaluable in train- 
ing players to change to 
the side of the field that is 
not protected. Guard 1 
starts the ball to guard 2 , 
who throws it to center, 
and then guard 1 crosses 
over ahead of guard 2 , and 
guard 2 crosses ahead of 
where guard 1 first stood, 
and receives the ball from 
guard 1 . The forwards 
make the same play at the 
other end of the field. 
This can be combined with V and the straight field 
played at one end and the cross field at the other. 
Require the players to change off the second time 
they do it, without being reminded. This play 
should be carried uninterruptedly through the entire 
field two or three times, and it has been done without 
mistake, by a team, six times. 

VII 

An interesting variation is the straight line play. 
In giving this the next one to receive the ball 




BASKETBALL 



209 




must not run to get into line until the girl who 
is to throw to her receives the ball. 
Otherwise the formation will be 
given away and the opponents' 
will be there, too. Guard 2 gets the 
ball, the center who is on the other 
side runs in behind her to receive it 
and guard 2 then crosses over to re- 
ceive it from center. While the 
forwards are getting into line the 
center runs straight toward the 
basket. When she gets the ball 
she starts the same play back again, all crossing to 
the other side. 

VIII 

A difficult variation, which can be attempted only 
after much practice in team work, is to have guards 

and forwards take the center 
place and have the center play 
out. Center 1 gets the ball, 
throws it to guard 1 ; then in- 
stead of keeping in the center 
field she runs out to the side. 
Guard 1 then throws the ball 
ahead to guard 2 , who throws it 
to center in her new position. 
Then guard 2 takes the center 
position, etc. When it comes to the forward end, 
they make the same changes with the center that the 
guards did. If the players are not very quick 




210 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 

guard 1 will have to follow down the field so as to be 
ready in case the others do not get into position in 
time. 

These illustrative plays by no means represent all 
of the possible combinations. They simply indicate 
some of the possibilities and show the splendid mental 
training, the superb physical control and the admir- 
able group education which team work gives. It is 
the training which is most valuable, whether the plays 
are used in contests or not. Dancing and other es- 
thetic exercises are not more beautiful and graceful 
than the precision, form and skill with which these 
team plays may be made. 

Basketball gives girls another opportunity for team 
practice which few other games provide, namely the 
use of signals. These have to be comparatively sim- 
ple. The various team plays may be indicated by 
numerals or letters or names. These may also be used 
to indicate a player's change of position when one of 
her side gets the ball. For instance, if a forward sees 
that her center will get the ball she can say seven — 
and her center knows that an odd number means that 
she intends to run quickly to the right side of the field. 
The opposing guard, not knowing what seven means, 
has to wait until she starts to run before she knows 
the direction. It is a great advantage to know where 
to throw a ball without turning to see. Simple visual 
signals like throwing the head back for a long ball, 
or holding the right hand out horizontally for a ball 
to be thrown in that direction, etc., are effective. 
Throwing the hand up may be taken as a signal for 



BASKETBALL 211 

a high ball and gives the player a chance to make 
the distance. Bending forward is a good signal for 
a floor ball. Successful use of team plays and sig- 
nals depends upon a strong center, and players 
should avoid giving signals when they have a poor 
chance. Some girls think signals are only valuable 
to attract attention of other players and audience and 
do it when they are in poor position. It has become 
such a habit that calling players by their first name, 
which means " throw me the ball," is done by girls who 
are replacing side-combs or fastening suits, with no 
idea that they will get the ball. This is not team 
work. 

Unfortunately these team plays and signals are not 
used a great deal by girls. Instructors only think 
them worth while to win games and not for individual 
training. Clapping hands, yells, whistles, etc., are 
more popular though not pleasing or successful, for 
if all the players want the ball, they all do these 
things at once. 

In the use of these team plays and signals care 
should be taken that the habit of running with the 
ball is not formed ; that the game does not become a 
series of passes with no try at goal ; and that the ball 
always goes forward and is not played back into the 
opponents' territory. 



CHAPTER X 

INDOOR BASEBALL 
VALUE OF THE GAME 

Baseball is not widely played by women, but pos- 
sesses the greatest educational possibilities, for it is 
the most highly organized of all games. There have 
been four causes of the lack of interest : the hard ball, 
the heavy bat, the long-distance throws and the com- 
plexity of the rules. While retaining all of the fun 
and value of the outdoor game, indoor baseball has 
solved all of these problems but one, and is admirably 
suited to women. It was invented in Chicago in 
1887, but was not popular at first, owing to the great 
difficulty of devising rules enabling a base-runner to 
get from base to base after a pitched ball. The in- 
door game may be played outdoors by using a larger 
diamond and the smallest ball allowed by the regu- 
lations. 

Advantages. — The ball used is soft ; the bats are 
short and light ; curves are not much used ; the pitch- 
ing is the straight arm, which is especially easy for 
girls, as it is the way they ordinarily throw; gloves 
and masks are not required, as the element of injury 
is greatly minimized ; sliding bases is but little prac- 
tised, owing to the rule that the base-runner cannot 

212 



INDOOR BASEBALL 213 

leave the base until after the ball has passed the 
batsman or while the pitcher holds it; bunting is 
much used, so strength does not count for a great 
deal; and the distances are short, so the throws need 
cause no strain. A high degree of exertion is re- 
quired only at intervals and then is not prolonged. 
Above all it is a pretty game with much fun in it. 
The only remaining difficulty is the complexity of 
the rules. 

Baseball has some advantages over basketball. It 
can be played by girls not strong enough to endure 
the constant strain of basketball. The order of 
team work is higher, for every player has to learn 
to field, bat and run bases, and she has to adapt 
herself to more players and learn more varied plays 
than in basketball. It also accommodates more play- 
ers at one time. 

Baseball like basketball requires a good body and 
good lungs, but there is so little strain that almost 
any girl can play. It develops to the highest degree, 
concentration, observation, memory, judgment, quick- 
ness, accuracy and the moral qualities. An illustra- 
tion of unselfishness through team work is the " sacri- 
fice hit," where the batsman deliberately puts herself 
out in order that another, who has a better chance, 
may score. No game offers better opportunities for 
corrections in bad standing postures and general 
carriage. The following suggestions for teaching in- 
door baseball to girls are made at length, in the hope 
that the game will be more widely used for both edu- 
cation and recreation, as it so richly deserves. More 



214 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 

information is available for those who wish to play 
baseball than basketball, but it is also more technical. 
Spalding's many books on outdoor baseball and 
how to play the various positions and bat contain 
many valuable suggestions. 

METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 

As in basketball, there should be much preliminary 
class work in the use of the bat, throwing, catching 
and base-running. We have found baseball most in- 
telligible and easily taught by dividing the instruc- 
tion into the following groups: Duties of various 
positions ; definition of terms ; rules applicable to 
the various positions. The following suggestions 
are made according to this classification : 

Pitcher. — It is well to make clear to the pitcher 
from the start that she has other responsibilities than 
merely throwing the ball to the batsman ; that play- 
ing the bases is important, and that she is respon- 
sible for fielding batted balls in her territory. There 
are second season pitchers who never go out of the 
box because they have been instructed " only to 
pitch." Teaching the pitcher to play second base 
when the baseman goes after balls should be begun 
early. Strive to develop, first, accuracy, then head 
work, and lastly speed. 

The pitcher should practise getting control of her 
ball for a little longer distance; then in a game her 
control remains good with shorter distances. Have 
her observe the style of the batsman. For instance, 
if she stands close to the plate and grasps the bat 



INDOOR BASEBALL 215 

near the handle, throw the balls toward the inner 
side of the plate, for these are difficult to hit. If she 
stands well back, a ball on the outer side may be 
hard to hit. 

Establish the feeling of co-operation between 
pitcher and catcher. In order to get balls over the 
plate, the pitcher needs something to aim at, and 
the catcher's hands in a good position help her a 
great deal. From the beginning, have her throw 
careful balls, and have the ball held in the same way 
before delivery. Although only one base can be 
taken on a passed or muffed ball, it is most important 
to remember in training, and the catcher should re- 
turn the ball to the pitcher as soon as possible. 

The pitcher in indoor baseball need not be taught 
to watch the bases while she holds the ball, for no bases 
can be stolen, but she should always know how many 
base-runners are on bases, their location and the 
number of outs, and should make up her mind before 
she pitches where she will play the ball if she gets it. 
Teach her to put out the one farthest around, and 
when there is a runner on third, to pitch accurately 
so the catcher will not miss the ball. 

When there is not the full number of shortstops, 
the pitcher plays this position and leads up toward 
home immediately after delivering the ball, so as to 
be ready for a bunt or pop-up. 

Catcher. — The catcher needs to be observant and 
cool and to have a good steady hand and be capable 
of good head-work. Size and weight are of some 
importance, speed is desirable, and she must be fear- 



216 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 

less. A timid person rarely plays well behind the 
bat at first, but it is a good place to develop physical 
courage, as well as desirable mental qualities. 

The catcher stands directly behind the bat. The 
first thing is to teach her to stand up close and net 
to be afraid of the bat or ball. Practice in catching 
hard-thrown balls will help this. The second thing 
is to insist that she " clutch " the ball when once it 
reaches her. The large soft ball is likely to get away 
unless much care is used in teaching players how ta 
use their fingers in catching. The third thing is for 
her to throw the ball accurately as soon as she catches 
it. The fourth thing is to teach her to anticipate, 
the ball. For instance, if it is going high, jump; if 
wide, run to one side. Insist upon her making an 
effort to get the ball instantly and never to take it 
for granted that a run will be made. She must be 
taught to watch bases and throw to the right one 
instantly. She should always make careful note of 
the position of each base-runner, number of outs, 
etc., before each pitched ball. 

She is the home baseman and as such has to learn 
its tactics. This double position needs much atten- 
tion, as it is very difficult to teach girls this com- 
bination. 

By putting hands in position the catcher can signal 
if she wants a high or a low ball. The pitcher need 
not throw it, but if they work together the catcher's 
instructions are usually followed. 

She always makes an effort to catch all fouls — 
for a foul tip caught counts as a strike and a foul 



INDOOR BASEBALL 217 

hit caught is out. She has a view of the entire field 
and knows all that is going on, and is therefore most 
responsible for the field. She plans plays to catch the 
runners and keeps the pitcher moving. When two 
are out a run on a passed ball is almost always tried, 
so the catcher must watch closely. She must always 
know where the ball is. Sometimes when the ball is 
in the outfield her attention is diverted by a girl steal- 
ing in, and she loses track of it. Then when it is 
thrown to her it often hits her because she is not 
paying attention. The natural attitude of most 
players is that there is nothing to do when they do 
not have the ball. 

Avoid throwing too high or too hard balls into the 
field, as girls are not expert catchers. When catch- 
ing a ball always give with it. Players have a tend- 
ency to hold the body rigid and arm stiff and thus 
receive more jar and strain. 

Batsmen. — When one team goes to field, every 
girl on the opposing team becomes a batsman and all 
scoring is done while they are at bat. This is where 
baseball excels every other game in its educational 
value, for a new kind of physical control, mental 
activity and group combination is required. The 
girl who a minute before was using all her faculties 
to outwit the base-runner, now endeavors to outwit 
the very position she just played. 

Coolness, a good eye for distances and good judg- 
ment are the first essentials. While no two people bat 
alike, it is difficult for a girl to assume an easy, nat- 
ural attitude and use all of her muscles. She should 



218 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 

stand so the bat will swing over the plate and a little 
back so she can judge where the ball will pass. Un- 
graceful positions can well be avoided. At first she 
bats only with her arms, hugs her elbows to her sides, 
or keeps the arms stiff. Much preliminary work has 
to be done in teaching the free use of the body in 
batting. Girls bunt exceedingly well, and it is worth 
while spending considerable time on this. 

When players are used to handling the bat and are 
not afraid to use it, they are ready to discriminate 
as to when to strike and when not to. Over the plate 
and between knee and shoulder seems a simple instruc- 
tion, but at first they hit at a sky-scraper or stoop 
down to dust the plate, so anxious are they to " hit 
something." A great deal of time must be spent in 
teaching them to judge when a ball is a ball and 
when a strike. The absence of curves renders this less 
difficult than in outdoor ball. They are careless 
about remembering how many " balls " and strikes 
they have and " forget to run." For this reason 
they need to be urged to get under way quickly after 
every hit. If it is a foul, they can come back any- 
way, and no harm is done. They have such a natural 
aversion to starting unless they are sure, that the 
matter of quick starts has to be overdone at first. 

The lack of initiative is exposed pitilessly in base- 
ball. The batsman always waits to be told to run, she 
sticks to her base until forced off ; she hesitates to take 
a risk; and waits to see if the third strike is caught. 
Instead of running and hearing the decision after- 
ward, she wants the decision first, and is slow to learn 



INDOOR BASEBALL 219 

to take risks. Another thing, girls are inclined to 
start slowly and gradually increase speed. The re- 
verse is needed. After a hit speed must be greatest 
at the start, because the distance is short and it 
counts for most at the beginning. 

The girl can now handle her bat, she knows strikes 
from balls and how to get away after a hit. She is 
then ready to learn something of placing hits. She 
looks up the outs and position of her base-runners 
and decides what kind of hit will help most, and then 
tries to make it. For instance, if there is a girl on 
first, it is a good thing to bunt, as a fly may mean a 
double out. A bunt is also a good play when there 
are runners on first and second with no one out. As 
a rule she hits high-pitched balls, and bunts low ones. 
To bunt a ball successfully, slide the hand quickly 
down the bat after the ball has started from the 
pitcher, and let the bat give with the ball when it is 
hit, holding the bat well in front of the body. 

For a fake bunt before the ball is pitched, slide the 
hand down the bat and get into a position as for a 
bunt. The shortstop will begin to draw up to the 
batsman ; then suddenly slide the hand up, swing the 
bat back and hit hard. 

With basemen and fielders who cannot hold hard- 
hit balls well, a hard swing is not as effective as a 
long sweeping swing or short quick chop, which gives 
a hit that may land a base. Left-handed batsmen 
should be encouraged, as the swing throws them in 
direct line for first base. 

Base-Runners. — It is difficult at first to make clear 



220 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 

to a girl just when she ceases to be a batsman and 
becomes a base-runner, with a new set of rules to reg- 
ulate her actions and a new set of tactics. She be- 
comes a base-runner under the following conditions: 
(1) Immediately after four balls. (2) Immediately 
after three strikes. (3) Immediately after she 
makes a fair hit. (4) If pitcher does not give her 
time to return, after she starts on a foul hit, etc. 
(5) When a fair hit ball strikes the umpire. (6) 
When she is stopped or obstructed by an adversary. 
(7) On an illegal pitch. 

The business of the base-runner seems simple — to 
get from base to base without being put out — but it 
is a perilous journey to the beginner, and she needs 
considerable encouragement. In the first place she 
has erroneous ideas about being put out. The aver- 
age girl thinks it means she is out of the game, and 
not infrequently goes home. She also thinks it a 
humiliation if she fails to catch a ball. If she is put 
out often she gets discouraged. 

Getting around all the bases and home without be- 
ing put out is an art. This depends upon the ability 
— first to hit balls at all, and second to place them; 
third to run ; and fourth upon head-work — such as 
judging distances, seizing opportunities, etc. Base- 
running means getting the most out of every situa- 
tion with the least possible effort. In outdoor base- 
ball, she can steal a base at any time ; in indoor ball 
only after the ball has passed the batsman and then 
only one base; or when a ball is hit, then, as many 
as she can get. 



INDOOR BASEBALL 221 

The distance between bases is so short that bursts 
of speed are required. Practising starts in dashes 
is good training for this. Sometimes when a ball is 
caught it is dropped, and unless it is a fly, the base- 
runner should keep on going. Her business is to get 
to the base and not to stop every instant and see 
what is going on back of her. She should always 
know where the ball is and must remember that first 
is the only base that may be overrun. 

When the pitcher has not the ball the runner may 
bluff by getting off a base in order to have the bail 
thrown there, and then run on to the next. Judg- 
ment of time and distances plus speed make safe base- 
running. 

A runner should not get the idea that the next 
batsman will always help her out after she gets to 
first. Many outs are due to timidity. " I knew I was 
all right there, but not sure of the next," said one 
player. When the rule of two on a base is explained 
they think it the fault of the batsman who runs them 
off, not realizing their responsibility in making way 
for her. When team work is dwelt upon, signals be- 
tween batsman and runner, as to the kind of play 
they will make together, are helpful. There is the 
danger of being too self-satisfied. When a runner 
makes one base she is often so pleased that she for- 
gets all other players or that there is anything more 
to be done to score. 

Sliding bases is not much used in indoor ball and 
is not advocated for girls, as effective slides are 
usually head first. The game can be successfully 



222 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 

played without them. Sliding even for small girls is 
always to be discouraged, owing to the liability to 
in j ury on the hard floor. As a rule they do not do it 
gracefully, and they have quite enough to learn to 
do well, without undertaking unnecessary tactics. 
Where it is practised out of doors, it is best to take 
a long slide usually, on the inside of bag, and catch 
hold of bag in passing. This depends upon the posi- 
tion of the baseman and sometimes it is better to go 
on the outside of the bag. Once started on a slide it 
is best not to look back, lest she change her mind. 
She can usually judge by a baseman's action where 
the ball is. If the throw is high, slide on the inside ; 
if the baseman is in front of the base, slide on the 
outside. 

Stealing bases adds to the excitement and interest. 
A good time to steal is : ( 1 ) When there is a girl on 
first and the batsman is getting strikes or is a weak 
batsman. (2) When a w T eak batsman is up and two 
are out and the base-runner is on third. (3) When 
the bases are full and a bunter comes to the bat. 
Stealing third is not so often attempted. It is mostly 
on second and home, for a hit counts for as much at 
second as at third. 

In order to become good base-runners, the follow- 
ing should be practised constantly: getting a quick 
start from the plate ; getting down to first with the 
utmost diligence; cutting the bags from the inside 
when running for more than one base ; getting under 
w r ay quickly; avoiding changing the mind when 
starting to run ; avoiding crowding the runner ahead 



INDOOR BASEBALL 223 

off her base ; getting away from first as soon as pos- 
sible, for that is the only place for the batsman if she 
makes a hit ; and dodging flies, for if they hit the 
base-runner she is out. 

Basemen. — With the exception of first, the busi- 
ness of the baseman is to catch the ball and tag the 
base-runner with it, either between bases or on the 
base. Each baseman is responsible for putting base- 
runners out at the base she is holding down. The 
mistakes most commonly made are: Basemen think 
base-runners are out: if they throw the ball at them 
and hit them before they reach the base ; if they hold 
the ball in one hand and touch them with the other 
or their feet ; if they catch the ball and touch base 
before the runner gets there, and then throw the ball 
again, before the runner arrives. This last holds 
good only at first. 

Basemen must be good catchers, able to pick up 
grounders and to use the underhand throw so much 
despised in basketball. A good practice for second 
and third basemen is to throw left-handed balls. It 
is quicker and decreases the likelihood of colliding 
with or hitting base-runners. Remember to tag 
every runner and field every ball that comes near, 
and not hug the base as though it might get away. 
When fielding a ball, allow time to return to the base 
before it can be reached by the base-runner. Some 
basemen have to be urged to get balls in their terri- 
tory. On one occasion the first baseman missed a 
high, hard ball from third. She jumped up and down 
on the bag squealing for help until all her team began 



224 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 

yelling that it was her business. The three base- 
runners in the meantime started for home. Then she 
started on a dead run, picked it up and instead of 
throwing it ran with all her might toward home, 
hugging the ball and calling to the runners, " Wait 
a minute, wait a minute." This tendency to carry the 
ball instead of throwing it is a hard one to over- 
come. 

The fact that a baseman has not only the ball 
to watch but the pitcher or catcher and base-runner 
as well, develops in her a high degree of co-operation. 
Double plays are unusual and triple plays rarely 
occur. The head-work and quickness required for 
these come with long practice, and girls have not 
played games enough to reach this high degree of 
team work. It is, however, worth striving for in 
team practice. 

To be able to play the various bases well requires 
much versatility, for the same tactics are not em- 
ployed at all bases. At first, the main thing is to get 
the ball and touch the base. At second and third 
a baseman may have to play fielder if a ball comes 
her way while the pitcher or shortstop takes her 
place. When the bases are full she has to put out 
the runner w T ho is on her way to the base she is guard- 
ing, and to put out another who may be on her way to 
the next. At third, there are a few things worth re- 
membering constantly. Never block a runner unless 
you have the ball. Avoid mix-ups. When a runner 
gets on third the excitement is intense, as a score is 
likely and too many people try to get the ball. This 



INDOOR BASEBALL 225 

is especially true of flies. With bases clear the third 
baseman may field wherever she thinks the ball may 
be hit. When the bases are empty a good position 
while waiting for a ball is inside between second and 
third bases. In fielding grounders, keep knees to- 
gether and body low, so as to block the ball if the 
hands miss it. The third baseman should make a 
special effort to catch foul hits in her direction. 

Shortstop. — Shortstops play inside the diamond 
and give attention to foul hits, bunts, short flies or 
" pop*ups " and grounders. Practice should empha- 
size : Learning quickly to catch " pop-ups," to field 
grounders and to make quick underhand throws to 
basemen. Shortstops may have to play basemen if 
the basemen turn fielder ; and so need to know the tac- 
tics of this position. Close team work is required 
among the shortstops, catcher, pitcher and base- 
man. 

Outfielders. — They need to be able to catch flies 
and to practise hanging on to the ball. When they 
miss it they need to get under way rapidly so as to 
return it with the least delay. Learn to run up on 
the grounders and to pick up and throw balls quickly. 
Fielders need good eyes to be able to judge distances. 
They are required to make the longest throws and 
need good strong arms. 

Never take the eyes off the ball from the time the 
batter is ready to hit. It is not enough to see it when 
it comes your way. 

An outfielder must back up the bases. Whenever 
there is a throw to bases try to get in line to stop it 



226 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 

if the baseman misses. If the hit is over the head too 
high to catch, turn instantly and run back so as to be 
on the spot where the ball drops. 

Stand squarely facing the batter so a run can be 
made in any direction. Never give up trying to get 
a ball and do not forget to jump for balls over the 
head. 

When catching, keep the thumbs out of the way. 
A low ball, which is anything below the waist-line, 
should be caught with the thumb line toward the ball. 

The following suggestions from Spalding rules 
are applicable to the indoor game for girls : 

" Always keep in front of the ball ; always go in to 
meet the ball; when running to the right pick up the 
ball with the left hand; unless there is plenty of time, 
always throw on the run; return a throw to the catcher 
underhanded, to stop a double steal; never throw the 
ball unless your chance of catching the runner is good; 
have the catcher or others who throw to you aim to 
reach you about shoulder high — you are then in a better 
position to return a throw; where time is scarce, scoop 
the ball to the player covering the bag with the same 
motion that you field it." 

Coaching is not used to any degree in indoor ball, 
as the small area of the diamond makes it little needed. 
The coacher is usually a player who goes to first or 
third base, watches the plays and position of ball, 
and encourages or advises the base-runner when to 
steal a base and when to run. It is helpful at third 
base, for the runner cannot very well turn around to 
see what is going on in the field. 

If the main part of the game — as pitching — is 



INDOOR BASEBALL 227 

played by the instructor while the girls are green 
players, good results are obtained in understanding 
the game and in speed. 

Baseball Rules. — Because of its high organiza- 
tion and complicated and badly arranged rules, base- 
ball must be taught in a very elementary way by per- 
sons who understand and love the game sufficiently to 
be patient with the slowness and many faults and 
misplays of new players. It is not a game the rudi- 
ments of which can be taught in a half-dozen lessons, 
as is basketball. 

In basketball a girl can play, if she learns the 
tactics of but one position, and the maximum is three. 
In baseball, she cannot play until she has learned the 
tactics of at least three — batsman, base-runner and 
a field position, and she may try seven positions, all 
requiring variation — pitcher, catcher, baseman, 
shortstop, fielder, batsman and base-runner. Not 
only this, but she is compelled to change positions 
rapidly, resulting sometimes in ludicrous confusion. 
On one occasion a hit was made, letting in three base- 
runners. After the excitement was over it was found 
that the third baseman was standing among the vic- 
torious group of base-runners on the other side. 
" What are you doing with the opposing team, help- 
ing them score? " asked a fellow baseman. 

Helping them score ! " said the bewildered girl. 

Why, I saw everybody running and I thought I 
ought to run, too, so I came along with Miss J ." 

On another occasion after changing sides, one 
team was found to be a player short. One of the 






228 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 

basemen volunteered to go and look her up, think- 
ing she might have been hurt. She was found dress- 
ing and saying unkind things about baseball. " Are 
you going to stop playing? " asked the baseman. 
" We are short a player without you." " Stop play- 
ing ! " retorted the girl. " Didn't the umpire put me 
out? Baseball is the worst game I've ever tried to 
play. Can't play ten minutes without being put out 
of the game ! " 

There are so many things to learn in the early 
stages of the game that dire confusion often prevails. 
We have seen seven players all on second base — the 
baseman who belonged there and the two shortstops, 
the pitcher and one fielder — all trying to shut out the 
base-runner coming from first and another base- 
runner who had started to third, but changed her 
mind and was coming back. The tendency is for all 
players to gravitate in the direction of the ball. 

The following definitions and classification may 
serve as a ready guide for instructors, and if given 
to the players in this way are readily learned and 
remembered. 

Definition of Terms. — Number of players is 
usually nine, as follows : pitcher and catcher, consti- 
tuting the battery ; two shortstops ; three basemen — 
first, second and third ; and two fielders — right and 
left. By tossing up a bat or a cent the sides choose 
whether they will go to bat or play in the field. 

Going to bat means that all the members of one 
side take their turn in regular order one after the 
other at batting, while all the members of the other 



INDOOR BASEBALL 229 

side play in the field, on bases and pitch and catch. 
The team in the field tries to put out the team at 
bat. 

Innings. — Baseball is scored by innings. There 
are two halves in each inning — one for each team. A 
half lasts until three members of one team are put 
out ; an inning lasts until three members of both 
teams are put out. There are nine innings in a game 
unless it is a tie, or otherwise changed by agreement 
of both teams. 

Runs. — Baseball is scored by runs. A run is when 
a batsman succeeds in going around all three bases 
and home and is not put out before the third out is 
called. 

Overrunning base. — Overrunning a base is when a 
base-runner goes beyond the bag and no part of her 
body touches it. 

Foul line. — The foul line is back of the base line 
from home to first and from home to third — all the 
space on the other side is the field. 

A fair ball is one which is over any portion of the 
home plate between the knee and shoulder of the bats- 
man. Such a ball is called a " strike," whether hit 
by the batsman or not. 

A " ball " is called by the umpire when a pitched 
ball does not go over any part of the plate or is below 
the knee or higher than the shoulder, and is not 
struck at by the batsman. When the batsman bats 
at such a ball, no matter how badly thrown, it counts 
as a strike. When four balls have been thrown be- 
fore three strikes are called, the batsman is given a 



230 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 

base, that is, allowed to go to first without being put 
out. 

A strike is (1) when any ball is batted at; (2) 
when it is a fair ball and not batted at; (3) a foul 
tip caught; and (4) a good ball interfered with by 
the batsman. 

A foul tip occurs when a ball is hit and the bat 
knocks it back of the foul line, no higher than the 
batsman's head. Such a ball, if caught, counts as a 
" strike." 

A foul ball is one striking back of the foul line, 
higher than the head and not caught. Where a 
ball hits first and not where it rolls is the test of a 
foul. 

A foul strike occurs when a ball is hit, and any 
part of the person of the batsman is outside her box. 

A fair hit is one which goes into the field. 

A bunt is a ball struck soft, so as to fall near the 
home plate. 

A fly is a ball batted high enough in the air to be 
caught before touching the ground. A grounder is 
one which skims along close to the ground. 

An illegal ball is one pitched when any part of the 
pitcher's body is out of her box ; or when she fails to 
heel the line; or when she takes more than one step 
forward. Any one of these mistakes entitles the bats- 
man or base-runner to a base. 

A balk occurs when the pitcher makes a motion to 
deliver the ball and does not do it ; or holds the ball 
too long and delays the game. 

A dead ball is caused by a pitched ball hitting the 



INDOOR BASEBALL 231 

batsman, but does not entitle the batsman to a base. 
If it is the third strike, the batsman is out. 

A one-base hit is one which enables the batsman to 
get to first ; two-base hit, or " two bagger," one which 
enables her to get second ; and three-base hit, to third 
without stopping. A home run is made when the run- 
ner goes all the way round without stopping. An 
umpire calls " out " when the batsman is to retire ; 
and " safe " if she has reached the base before the 
ball or has not been tagged, or slides with the bag 
and clings to it. 

A double out occurs when the ball reaches first base 
before the batsman and then is thrown to second base 
before the base-runner from first gets there. In this 
way two are put out. This may occur on any 
base. 

A forced run is where a base-runner holds a base 
and is forced on to the next base to make room for 
another base-runner or batsman. 

A sacrifice hit occurs when the batsman hits the 
ball so that she will be put out, thus enabling a base- 
runner who is on third or second to score. While she 
is being put out at first, it may be quite easy for a 
runner to get home. 

The ball is not in play, L e., no one can run or 
score, (1) when there is a foul strike; (2) when there 
is a foul hit ball not legally caught; (3) when there 
is a dead ball; and (4) when the base-runner is put 
out by being hit by the ball. In these cases the ball 
is in play again only when it is held by the pitcher in 
the box. 



232 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 

Rules for Batsmen. — The batsman is out : ( 1 ) If 
a third strike is caught by the catcher. (2) If there 
is a base-runner on first, the batsman is out on a third 
strike whether it is caught or not; except when two 
are already out. (3) If the ball is not caught by the 
catcher, but is thrown to first base and is held by the 
first baseman while some part of her body touches the 
base — before the batsman gets there. (4) If, as a 
base-runner, she is touched with the ball in the hands 
of a fielder before she reaches a base. (5) If she 
bats out of her turn and makes a fair hit before it is 
discovered. The order of batting is made up before 
the game begins, and must then be adhered to. (6) 
If she fails to take her position within one minute 
when it is her turn to bat. (7) If a foul hit or a 
fair hit is caught. (8) If she makes a foul strike, 
i. e. 9 bats while any part of her body is outside the 
batsman's box. (9) If she interferes with the 
catcher or intentionally fouls the ball. (10) If 
she intentionally gets in the way of a pitched 
ball. (11) If she is hit by the ball on the third 
strike, i. e. 9 intentionally fouls the ball and it hits 
her. 

Rules for Base-Runners. — A base-runner can 
leave her base only when the ball has left the pitcher's 
hand and reached or missed the catcher. If she leaves 
at any other time she may be put out or called back. 
A base-runner who, at any time after she overruns 
first, is off base, may be put out if she is touched with 
the ball in the hands of a player. Only one base may 
be taken when a ball passes the batsman or is fum- 



INDOOR BASEBALL 233 

bled, except when it is the third strike or four balls, 
then she takes all she can get. 

A base-runner may take one base under the fol- 
lowing conditions : ( 1 ) Immediately when the umpire 
calls four balls she goes to first. (2) If the pitcher 
does not give her time to return. (3) When a fair 
hit ball strikes the umpire. (4) If she is stopped or 
obstructed by an adversary. 

When a fair or foul ball is caught the base- 
runner can only advance from the base after the ball 
is caught. If she starts before she must go back and 
touch base, or if touched with the ball before return- 
ing to the base, she is out. On a fair hit ball a base- 
runner runs all the bases she can get. A base-runner 
must be on base when the pitcher is ready to deliver 
the ball. 

The base-runner must return to her base under the 
following conditions : ( 1 ) When there is a foul hit not 
legally caught. (When it is caught it is a strike and 
the base-runner can advance.) (2) When there is a 
foul strike. (3) When a dead ball is called. (4) 
When the umpire is struck by a ball thrown to the 
baseman. (5) When she leaves her base too soon. 

The base-runner may be put out under the fol- 
lowing conditions: (1) If a foul hit or fair hit is 
caught. (2) If third strike is caught. (3) If she 
interferes with ball, as kicking it. (4) If after three 
strikes or fair hits she is touched with the ball in 
hands of a player, or the ball reaches the first base 
before she does. (5) If she runs more than three feet 
either side of the base line. (6) If she fails to avoid 



234 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 

a fielder trying to field a batted ball, or obstructs a 
fielder. (7) If at any time, except when she over- 
runs first, she is touched with the ball in the hands 
of a fielder when no part of her body touches the base, 
except when she goes back on a foul, or is ordered 
back by the umpire or given a base. If a base- 
runner overruns first and goes on to second, then she 
is not entitled to exemption for overrunning. (8) 
When a foul hit or fair hit is caught, not only is the 
batsman out, but the base-runner also if the ball 
reaches the baseman before she returns to the base 
and touches it after the ball was caught. (9) When 
a hit ball strikes a base-runner, who is running be- 
tween the bases. (10) If she fails to touch bases as 
she runs and the ball is returned first to the base that 
she did not touch. 

A baseman on first need not touch the batsman 
running to first; on a double play where a fair hit 
or foul hit is caught, the ball need only be held 
by the baseman. At all other times she must be 
tagged. 

Illustrative Hypothetical Questions. — The only 
way to make baseball popular and interesting for 
girls is to have them thoroughly understand it. A 
series of hypothetical questions helps them in this. 
The following are some illustrations: 

If there is a base-runner on first and on second and 
a grounder is hit to third, what will the third baseman 
do with the ball? 

If there is a base-runner on second and the short- 
stop gets the ball, where will she throw it? 



INDOOR BASEBALL 235 

If there are base-runners on first and on second 
and the right fielder catches a fly, where will she 
throw it? 

If there is a base-runner on third and the ball is 
hit to second baseman, what does she do with it? 

If there is a base-runner on third and the ball is 
bunted, and the catcher gets it, what will she do with 
it? 

If all the bases are full and the ball is batted to the 
pitcher, what does she do with it? 

If a hit grounder misses the pitcher and goes three 
feet one side of second base, what should the second 
baseman and pitcher do ? 

If there is a base-runner on third and the umpire 
calls four balls, where should the catcher throw the 
ball? 

If all the bases are full and the umpire calls three 
strikes and the ball is caught, where should the 
catcher throw it? 

If a pitched ball is missed by the catcher and she 
runs for it, what does the shortstop do? 

When a base-runner has started from second and 
the ball gets to third before she does, who plays and 
where ? 

If there are base-runners on first and on second and 
the third strike is caught, where is the ball to be 
thrown ? 

If there is a base-runner on first and a hot 
grounder comes to the second baseman, where will she 
throw it? 

If there is one out and base-runners on first and 



236 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 

third and the third strike goes over the catcher's 
head, to whom is the ball thrown? 

If there is a base-runner on each base and a 
grounder goes to the third baseman, what does she 
do with it? If it is a fly caught by her, what does 
she do? 

When no base-runner is on bases and a hard single 
grounder goes out to the left field, where should the 
ball be returned? 

When there is a base-runner on third and a single 
goes to the right fielder uncaught, where should it be 
returned ? 

When there is a base-runner on first and a 
grounder gets to first before the batsman, what 
should the baseman do with the ball? 



CHAPTER XI 

FIELD HOCKEY 
VALUE OF THE GAME 

Field hockey was first introduced into this coun- 
try by Miss Constance Appleby in 1901. The game 
is of English origin, and played to a large extent by 
women's clubs in England and Ireland, where the 
bright greens and reds of the club costumes add much 
to the picturesqueness of the game. Ordinary street 
clothes, however, with a skirt at least six inches from 
the ground, are suitable, and make hockey espe- 
cially adaptable to schools where only an unenclosed 
field is available, and where outdoor work is desired 
till late in the fall, or in the early spring. 

The game can be played on any large, fairly level 
lot. The more evenly graded the turf, of course, the 
more accurate passing is possible and the better 
game results. The regulation field is fifty or sixty 
by one hundred yards, though smaller dimensions can 
well be used. The only paraphernalia necessary are 
the regulation ball and a hockey stick for each player. 
A great deal depends on the kind of stick used. If 
it is too light, a hard stroke will jar the hands and 
may, with repetition, cause injury. A good average 
weight is 22 ounces. The weight depends somewhat 

237 



238 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 

on positions, forwards generally using lighter sticks, 
halfbacks the medium weight and fullbacks the heav- 
iest sticks. 

Hockey has an especial advantage because of the 
chance it gives to so many different types of girls to 
play, the forward, halfback, fullback and goal posi- 
tions each calling for special qualifications. With 
eleven players on a side, the offense and defense so 
finely differentiated, the need of team work as an abso- 
lute necessity to scoring, the many chances of clever 
strokes and of outwitting opponents — with all of 
these — the educational possibilities are manifold. 
Speed, accuracy, good judgment, fearlessness, deter- 
mination, discrimination, precision, all must be devel- 
oped to make good hockey players. 

It is surprising that hockey is so little played 
among girls in this country. In a short while even 
comparatively poor players become very fond of the 
game. Wholly apart from the instructor, the game 
itself seems to awaken a spirit of play and fun which 
brings a glow and healthy excitement to even the most 
sluggish natures. A squad of girls from the class- 
room who, before practice, have been lifeless and dull, 
never fail to return full of spirit, every one chatter- 
ing as hard as she can. 

METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 

From the point of view of the instructor, hockey is 
a difficult game to teach for two reasons — the size of 
the field and number of players. There are eleven 
players on a side, five forwards, three halfbacks, two 



FIELD HOCKEY 239 

fullbacks and a goal. To watch each one of these 
twenty-two players on such a large playing space, 
with the ball traveling so quickly back and forth, is 
almost a physical impossibility. Before the in- 
structor can reach a girl who has made a bad play, 
the ball may be down at the other end, and the in- 
structor have missed two or three plays. Individual 
coaching must be done while the game is in progress. 
Girls who are at fault must be corrected while the ball 
is in other territory. The usual plan of stopping the 
practice for criticism is not generally desirable, for 
that would mean constant interruption and loss of 
the spirit of the game. There are, of course, rules 
for forwards and backs as a whole which must be 
taught in this manner, but all fine points of coaching 
must be individual while the ball is in play. 

Rules. — In contrast to basketball and baseball, the 
rules are simple, and by the following classification 
easy to learn : 

Fouls. — 1. Rough play. 2. Carrying ball. 3. 
Kicking ball (except goal). 4. Using back of stick. 
5. Sticks. 6. Crosschecking. 7. Off side. 

Penalties. — I. For fouls: 1. Committed outside 
striking circle. 2. Committed within striking circle: 
a, by attacking; b, by defending. II. For sending 
ball out of field of play: 1. Over side lines. 2. Over 
goal lines, a, by attacking; &, by defending; «r, 
intentional; ?/, unintentional. 

Preliminary Work with the Green Squad. — The 
preliminary work of teaching girls to hold the stick 
correctly, to hit accurately, stop the ball by foot or 



240 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 

stick, execute the dribble, to stop and hit immedi- 
ately, use the back-handed and never the left-handed 
play, to execute well the short hit to right and run 
around left of an opponent, to hook sticks, is slow 
and uninteresting with a large squad of girls where 
many are unoccupied much of the time. It is well in 
such a case to warm the girls up by putting them 
into a game right away, and giving the necessary 
practice in passing " between halves." 

One way of giving practice in passing, and also 
of developing team play, is to line up only one side, 
as at the beginning of a game, start the ball at the 
goal and tell the girls to advance it as rapidly and 
accurately as possible towards and through the oppo- 
site goal. This sort of practice develops quicker re- 
action than the ordinary class practice in double line 
passing. 

Another manner of teaching accurate hitting is to 
divide a large class in half, each half forming a circle, 
the girls to stand from fifteen to twenty-five feet 
apart ; start one ball in each circle, and have it passed 
as quickly as possible from one girl to another, the 
circle first finishing one or more rounds being the win- 
ner. This element of competition adds interest to 
otherwise rather tiresome but very necessary work. 

Before the green squad is put on the field to play, 
two things are necessary. The girls must be shown 
how to hold the stick and make the wrist stroke, and 
must have a short talk on the principal rules. It is 
just as well not to have two full teams at first. Five 
forwards, three halfbacks and a flying goal can be 



FIELD HOCKEY 241 

played, or three forwards, two halves, a fullback and 
a goal. When the rules are violated, immediately 
stop play, explain and penalize the offender. 
" Sticks " and using the back of the stick should sel- 
dom occur after the first three or four practices. 

In these beginning hockey periods, all girls will be 
so anxious to play the ball that what will seem hope- 
less confusion will at first result. Four or five or 
even six girls will be on the ball at the same time. 
Girls will make hits to right or left and follow up 
the ball, or repeatedly straight ahead into the hands 
of opponents ; will stand stock-still after playing the 
ball ; right wings will play on the left side of the field ; 
center halves outside of right or left halves. Slowly 
the principles of correlating offense and defense and 
of playing their own positions must be taught. 

Offense and Defense. — The offensive work is done 
largely by the forward line and to some extent by the 
halfbacks. It is the forwards who score points by 
sending the ball between their opponents' goal-posts. 
The defense is taken care of by the halves, fullbacks 
and goal. The halves must attack the opposing for- 
ward line, recover the ball and feed it to their own 
forwards. If the halves allow the ball to get past 
them, it is the fullbacks who must keep the ball 
out of the striking circle and must return it quickly 
to their halves. The goal-keeper is sole guardian of 
the twelve feet of goal line between the posts. Hers 
must be the foresight, agility, determination and 
courage which prevent the actual scoring of a point. 
Between the twenty-five-yard lines defensive work 



242 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 

falls somewhat to the hands of the forwards. At the 
twenty-five-yard line, however, defending forwards 
stop. Beyond that, it is entirely up to the backs to 
break up the team work of the attacking forwards, 
to regain the ball and send it to their waiting forward 
line on the twenty-five-yard mark. The tendency is 
for beginners in the forward line to do too much de- 
fensive work, to play on top of their halfback line in- 
stead of ahead of it. It is expedient to give general 
rules to green players which, later on, even with in- 
creased efficiency, are occasionally broken. In de- 
fense, require players to stay back of the ball, namely 
between the ball and the goal they are defending, 
whether the ball is in their territory or not, at the 
same time watching closely the particular girl op- 
posed to them, to prevent her receiving a pass. In 
offense, require forwards to play on a line with each 
other or only slightly ahead of the girl with the ball 
(cautioning against off side), halves between full- 
backs and forwards, fullbacks between halves and 
goal. It is remarkable how often these very obvious 
and simple rules must be repeated. 

Forwards. — Because the forwards do all of the 
aggressive playing and cover practically the whole 
field, they must have above all things sound lungs and 
great endurance. Speed, alertness, agility, quick re- 
action are essentials. These qualities must find their 
highest development in the center forward, about 
whom the whole line swings, who is the pivot for team 
work and the very life of the attack. She should be 
a sure, accurate hitter, able to make passes to left 



FIELD HOCKEY 243 

or right with equal ease, and to receive from either 
direction. She must not be too fond of the ball, at- 
tempting to carry it down the field alone, but must 
know just when to pass it and in what direction most 
advantageously. " The inside forwards act as pivots 
between center and wings. They also want to be 
accurate hitters and should be able to pass the ball 
as easily to one side as to the other, ever on the alert 
for chances, watching the half and fullback lines for 
passes, and prompt to pass the ball on to the wings or 
center." 

Wing Position. — This, like the guard in basket- 
ball, is probably the least appreciated, for the tend- 
ency is to pass toward the center of the field. The 
wise player, however, uses her wing to good advan- 
tage, as that position is the most open and unpro- 
tected on the field. The wing of all forward posi- 
tions, because of the great distance to travel, needs 
girls with a high amount of endurance. The left 
wing is especially hard to play, because of the skill 
needed for receiving passes from the right and re- 
turning in the same direction. 

Halfbacks. — These do not need quite such endur- 
ance or speed as the forwards. Nevertheless, they 
must have good lungs. They must be heavier girls, 
for they must be, above all, hard, accurate hitters. 
They must never fail in energy or resource, for theirs 
is the duty of first defense, of attacking the onrush- 
ing opponents in the forward line. If these succeed 
in passing them, they must be quick to turn and 
resume defense once more with tireless insistence. 



244 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 

Center Halfback. — This player is probably the 
busiest girl on the team. She must watch the oppos- 
ing center forward and halfback, back up her own 
center and know always the best forward to send the 
ball to. She must be cool and very sure and have 
absolute grasp of the new situations as they develop. 

Right and Left Halfbacks. — These must watch the 
opposing inside forwards and wings, must be quick to 
receive passes from their fullbacks, and take them 
away from opposing forwards. They must be able 
to send long, hard balls, for at times diagonal passes 
across the field are necessary. 

The most reliable girls at stopping the ball and 
hitting should be the fullbacks. A firm, quick, hard, 
sure stroke from the fullback exactly to the right girl 
often prevents a score and saves the day. Here speed 
is not an essential. A girl of slow temperament, upon 
whom her team-mates can always depend, is the de- 
sirable fullback. Her stability gives a sense of se- 
curity to the whole team. When she rescues a ball 
from the striking circle and passes it accurately on to 
her waiting halves or forwards, new spirit enters the 
attack, and half the game is won. The fullback, 
though slow of temperament, must be an adept at 
stopping the ball with the foot and instantly shooting 
it away from the danger line. She must be quick of 
eye and indefatigable in defense of the goal line. 

Goal-tender. — The goal-tender must be a girl of 
absolute fearlessness and instant reaction. Her 
chances do not come often, but when they do, they 
bring the most critical tests of nerve, eye, body and 



FIELD HOCKEY 245 

brain on the field. No timid, shrinking girl will do 
for a goal-tender, unless she is put there to overcome 
these qualities. 

Team Work. — The final great task in hockey is to 
develop team work, without which the game seems 
crude, aimless and uninteresting to spectators and 
players alike. It is only after constant repetition of 
" stick to your own position," " follow your position, 
not the ball," that bunching is done away with and 
girls are taught the meaning of team work. Stop 
the game in order to make a right wing who may be 
left of her center play her own side of the field ; or to 
call back a center-half who may be rushing toward 
the side lines after the ball. There is nothing more 
exasperating than not having a girl in her proper rel- 
ative position when some one wants to pass her the 
ball. In learning to play her own position, she will 
learn her neighbor's and not to interfere with it. 
When finally each girl realizes that she is one of 
eleven players, each one of whom has a special part 
to play, all of whom have one end in view, and with- 
out any of whom that end cannot be accomplished, a 
really beautiful game results which is a pleasure to 
all spectators and players alike. 



APPENDIX I 

PRINTED FORM OF INQUIRY USED FOR 
SECONDARY SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES 

1. Name of School or College. 

2. How much physical work is required? 

S. How many instructors in Athletics? Men or 
Women ? 

4. Give name of each sport played. 

For what length of time during the year is each 

jDlayed ? 
Name exact title of the rules used for each game 

and state reasons for preference. 

5. What are the requirements for playing each sport? 

6. What preliminary measurements or examinations 

are invariably made? 

7. State average age or range of ages of girls playing 

under your supervision. 
What regulations exist in regard to dress ? 
Times when a girl should play, especially the 

menstrual period? 
Baths? 
Length of practice period? 

8. What percentage is athletic work and what gym- 

nastic of the required work? 
Of elective work? 

9. May a girl play games without taking gymnastic 

work? 

247 



248 APPENDIX I 

10. In how many sports can she play in a quarter or 

term ? 

11. What is the maximum amount of practice allowed? 

12. Is it necessary to stimulate interest in athletics? 

13. Give all the various means, contests, prizes, or- 

ganizations, etc., by which interest is stimu- 
lated. 
How are prizes supplied? 

14. What is your system of coaching, student, pro- 
fessional? 

15. Give in detail the arrangement of your work. 

16. Do you have a field? 

17. What is the object of coaches, to develop teams or 

individuals ? 

18. What has been the previous training of your coach 

or instructor? 

19. What do you consider to be the qualifications of a 

coach ? 

20. Do you select teams and play match games? 

21. Do you play outside teams? 

22. Do you play for prizes? 

23. If you play only in your own school or college, who 

are the opposing teams? 

24. Who arranges for these contests and under what 

organization ? 

25. State the average number of contests per season for 

each sport. 

26. Are all players permitted to take part in contests 

or only first and second teams? 

27. Are the officials men or women? 

28. Are the contests public? 

29. On what conditions are men permitted to attend? 

30. Is admission by purchase of ticket or invitation? 



APPENDIX I 249 

31. When teams travel about the city or from city to 

city, under what supervision are they? 

32. Is eligibility to play in contest based on standing 

in academic work? 

33. Have you any kind of athletic organization or 

association ? 

34. If so, please enclose constitution, regulation, and 

other details. 

35. What is their object? 

36. How are they maintained? 

37. In what way do they influence school or college life 

as a whole? 

38. In what way is the social side of athletics em- 

phasized ? 

39. Suggestions and experiences. 



APPENDIX II 

SOME ILLUSTRATIVE CONSTITUTIONS OF 
COLLEGE AND HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETIC 
ASSOCIATIONS 



1. The name of this Association shall be "The 
Athletic Association of College." 

2. All members of the Undergraduate Association 
shall be members of this Association. 

3. The officers of the Association shall be President, 
Vice President with the duties of Treasurer, and Secre- 
tary. The duties of the President shall be to call and 
preside at meetings. The duties of the Vice President 
shall be to assume the duties of the President whenever 
necessary, and to act as Treasurer. The duties of the 
Secretary shall be to keep the minutes of the Association 
and a list of the members, to post notices of the meetings 
and to attend to the correspondence of the Association. 

4. There shall be two managers, one for indoor, and 
one for outdoor athletics, who together with the officers 
of the Association shall constitute an Executive Board 
of which the President shall be chairman. 

5. The constitution and a report of the proceedings 
of the previous year shall annually be read by the Secre- 
tary of the Association at a meeting held within the first 
week of the first semester. 

6. A meeting may be called at any time by the Presi- 

250 



APPENDIX II 251 

dent on her own motion and must be called on the 
application of five members. When the President is 
unable to call a meeting on application it shall be called 
by the Vice President or some member of the Executive 
Board. It shall be the duty of the Secretary, twenty- 
four hours previous to any meeting of the Association, 
to post on the bulletin board in each hall a notice stating 
the time of said meeting and the subject to be discussed. 

7. The Executive Board shall be annually elected by 
ballot during the first week of May, and shall enter upon 
their duties immediately. 

8. To defray the expenses of the Association every 
member shall pay an annual due to be fixed by the 
Executive Board. To defray expenses of intercollegiate 
athletics every member shall pay a due to be fixed by 
the Executive Board subject to the approval of the As- 
sociation. If any member find herself unable to pay 
the whole or part of the assessment she shall make 
known her case to the Treasurer and, if she fail to do 
so, shall be held responsible for the whole. 

9. One-fourth of the members of this Association shall 
constitute a quorum. 

10. To amend this constitution a majority of three- 
fourths of the members of the Association shall be 
required. 

II 

ARTICLE I NAME 

This club shall be known as the Athletic 

Association. 

ARTICLE II OBJECT 

The object of this Association shall be to promote an 
interest in gymnastics and athletic sports among the 



252 APPENDIX II 

students of College, and to hasten the preparation 

of a playground. 

ARTICLE III MEMBERSHIP 

§ 1. Only students of College who are regu- 
lar attendants of the gymnasium, shall be eligible for 
membership. 

§ 2. Members shall register and pay dues before 
November first; no new members shall be admitted into 
the Association after the second week preceding the 
second meet. 

ARTICLE IV DUES 

The annual dues shall be fifty cents. This does not 
include the additional fees for outdoor sports. 

ARTICLE V OFFICERS 

§ 1. The officers shall be President, Vice President, 
Secretary, and Treasurer. 

§ 2. Duties of Officers. 

1. The President shall call all meetings of the Asso- 
ciation and preside at the same. 

2. In the absence of the President, the Vice President 
shall fulfil the duties of that officer. 

3. The Secretary shall take charge of all the cor- 
respondence of the Association, keep the records of 
meetings, give due notice of same, and prepare a report 
to be read at the annual meeting. 

4. The Treasurer shall be in charge of the finances 
of the Association, and shall prepare a report to be read 
at the annual meeting. 

§ 3. Election. The officers shall be elected by 
double ballot at the annual meeting for the term of one 
year. A majority of the members present shall be suf- 



APPENDIX II 253 

ficient for election, but for re-election a vote of two- 
thirds shall be necessary. The quorum shall be fifteen 
to carry on this business. 

ARTICLE VI 

§ 1. The Executive Committee shall consist of the 
officers of the Association, the Physical Director, and a 
representative from each of the three lower classes. 

§ 2. Duties. 1. The Executive Committee shall be 
in charge of the four regular meetings of the Associa- 
tion, and shall be empowered to determine and meet the 
incidental expenses of the Association and to appoint all 
other committees. 

2. Meetings of the Executive Committee shall be 
called at the discretion of the President, who shall act 
as Chairman. 

ARTICLE VII MEETINGS 

§ 1. There shall be four regular meetings. 

1. The first gymnasium meet to be held the second 
Saturday in January. 

2. The open meet to be held on the second Saturday 
before the spring vacation. 

All members of the Athletic Association will be 
eligible to compete in these meets. The members of the 
four college classes shall compete for their respective 
classes. Specials will compete for the four college 
classes according as they are first, second, third, or 
fourth year students. No student who has been at col- 
lege more than four years shall be eligible to the meets. 

3. The Reception to the Freshmen to be held during 
the last two weeks of November. 

4. The Annual Business Meeting to be held during 
the last week in May. 



254 APPENDIX II 

§ 2. All other meetings shall be called at the discre- 
tion of the President. 

§ 3. A quorum consisting of eleven members shall be 
necessary for the transaction of business with the ex- 
ception of that of the election of the officers. 

ARTICLE VIII AMENDMENTS 

Amendments to this Constitution shall be passed by 
two-thirds of the members present. 

ARTICLE IX SPORTS 

§ 1. Basketball. 1. All candidates for class and 
college teams and the Business Managers shall be mem- 
bers of the Athletic Association. 

2. Captains shall be chosen by the members of the 
teams for a term of one year. 

3. The College Team shall be selected by the Cap- 
tain, the Physical Director and the Physical Instructor. 

4. The expenses of the College Team shall be met by 
the Athletic Association. 

5. Regulations for competitive class games shall be 
left in charge of the Physical Director. 

§ 2. Tennis. 1. A Chairman of the Tennis Section 
shall be elected at the Annual Business Meeting of the 
Athletic Association, who shall be in charge of the 
Tennis interests of the Association ; and she shall be em- 
powered to collect the annual dues of the Tennis Section, 
and to appoint committees. 

2. The outdoor courts which belong to the Association 
may be used by members of the Athletic As- 
sociation who have paid their Tennis Section dues, and 
by any college girl who does not belong to the Athletic 
Association, on payment of her tennis dues. The latter 



APPENDIX II 255 

persons will have no voice in the management of the 
Tennis Section. 

§ 3. Hockey. 1. A Chairman of the Hockey Section 
shall be elected at the Annual Business Meeting of the 
Athletic Association; and she shall be empowered to col- 
lect the annual dues of the Hockey Section and appoint 
committees. 

2. The outdoor grounds which belong to the Associa- 
tion may be used by members of the Athletic Associa- 
tion who have paid their Hockey Section dues, and by 

any student who does not belong to the Athletic 

Association, on payment of her hockey dues. The 
latter persons will have no voice in the management 
of the Hockey Section. 

Ill 

ARTICLE I NAME 

The name of this organization shall be the Woman's 
Athletic Association of the University of . 

ARTICLE II PURPOSE 

The purpose shall be co-operation with the Woman's 
Department of Physical Culture for the promotion of 
the physical and social activity of university women. 

ARTICLE III OFFICERS 

The officers shall consist of a President, Vice Presi- 
dent, and Secretary and Treasurer. 

President 

The President, and in her absence, the Vice President, 
shall call, and preside at all meetings of the Association, 
Executive Committee and Advisory Board, and shall per- 



256 APPENDIX II 

form such other duties as the Association may assign 

her. 

Secretary-Treasurer 

The Secretary-Treasurer shall conduct all correspond- 
ence^ keep the minutes of the meetings, and all athletic 
records, and shall have charge of all funds of the As- 
sociation. She shall have all disbursements authorized 
by the Executive Committee, and shall notify persons of 
their election to membership. 

Executive Committee 

The Executive Committee shall consist of the Presi- 
dent, Secretary-Treasurer and Director of the Woman's 
Department of Physical Culture or some one appointed 
by her. They shall have charge of all funds and prop- 
erties of the Association, and decide such matters as the 
Advisory Board may refer to them. 

Advisory Board 

The Advisory Board shall include the Executive Com- 
mittee, and the chairmen in charge of the various sports 
and branches of organized work. They shall supervise 
all movements for the promotion of athletic spirit and 
interests, including all features of public games (except 
as provided in Rule II of the By-Laws), mass-meet- 
ings and social functions. They shall control all mat- 
ters not otherwise provided for. 

ARTICLE IV MEETINGS 

A meeting of the Association may be called at any 
time by the President, or upon the written request of 
any twenty-five members of the Association. 

There shall be an annual meeting held the second 



APPENDIX II 257 

Tuesday in December for purposes of election and other 
routine business. 

ARTICLE V ELECTION 

§ 1. All nominations for officers shall be made by a 
nominating committee selected by the Advisory Board. 
There shall be at least three nominations for each office. 

§ 2. The remainder of the Advisory Board shall be 
elected as follows: Each branch of organized work shall 
nominate and elect from the floor a committee of five, 
whose duty shall be to supervise and represent the sport 
so electing it; and to have charge of the matters desig- 
nated to it by the body electing it. The chairmen of 
these committees constitute, with the officers designated, 
the Advisory Board. 

§ 3. All nominations shall be posted one week prior 
to the meeting, all voting shall be by ballot, and a ma- 
jority vote shall be required to elect. For all meetings 
of the Association seventy-five persons shall be deemed 
a quorum. 

ARTICLE VI TERM OF OFFICE 

§ 1. All officers and members of the Board shall hold 
office for the period of one year. Committees shall 
serve for the same length of time. 

§ 2. All vacancies for President, Vice President and 
Secretary-Treasurer shall be filled by the Advisory 
Board appointing one of its own members. All other 
vacancies shall be filled as provided in Article V, 
Section 2. 

ARTICLE VII MEMBERS 

The Association shall be open to all women in the 
University under the following: 



258 APPENDIX II 

§ 1. Active. All women registered in all organized 
sports, track athletics and indoor competitive work, 
conducted by the Women's Department of Physical 
Culture. 

§ 2. Associate. All women registered for gymnasium 
work, but not included in Section 1. 

§ 3. Honor. All women who make the University and 
College teams, who win points and make records in 
athletic and gymnastic contests and tournaments. 
These members must be without university conditions. 

§ 4. Honorary. University faculty and alumnae. 

§ 5. All applications for membership, other than 
honorary, shall be made to the Secretary, who shall refer 
them to the Director of the Woman's Department of 
Physical Culture, who shall decide upon eligibility and 
membership. 

Recommendations for honorary membership shall be 
sent in writing to the Secretary and referred to the Ad- 
visory Board, who shall pass upon and refer them to an 
Association vote. 

§ 6. Active and associate members shall not have vot- 
ing powers or right to hold office. 

ARTICLE VIII FEES 

There shall be no regular membership fee or tax, but 
contributions may be solicited by a committee appointed 
by the Advisory Board, for purposes designated by 
them. 

ARTICLE IX AMENDMENTS 

This Constitution may be amended by a two-thirds 
vote of the members required to be present at the meet- 
ing. These amendments shall be posted in the gym- 
nasium at least ten days prior to such a meeting. 



APPENDIX II 259 

IV 
HIGH SCHOOL CONSTITUTION 

ARTICLE I NAME 

The name of this Association shall be the 

High School Girls Athletic Association. 

ARTICLE II OBJECT 

The object of this Association shall be to encourage 
gymnasium work and such sports as girls may properly 
enter into. 

ARTICLE III MEMBERSHIP 

All girls and lady teachers of the High 

School shall be eligible to active membership. Grade 
teachers may also be elected. 

ARTICLE IV MEETINGS 

§ 1. The annual meeting of this Association for the 
election of officers shall be held on the third Tuesday of 
September. 

§ 2. Special meetings shall be held at the call of the 
President or upon the written request of five members. 

article v 

Quorum. A quorum shall consist of three-fifths of 
the active members. 

ARTICLE VI 

§ 1. The officers of this Association shall be a Presi- 
dent, Vice President, Treasurer and Secretary. 

§ 2. The Executive Committee shall consist of the 
President, Vice President, Secretary and Treasurer, and 
one member of the faculty elected from those holding a 
preliminary certificate. 



260 APPENDIX II 

ARTICLE VII 

§ 1. Duties of the officers. The President shall 
preside at all meetings of the Association and Executive 
Committee. 

She shall appoint all sub-committees, not otherwise 
provided for, whenever duly requested or when in her 
judgment she may deem it necessary. 

§ 2. The Vice President shall, during the absence of 
the President, perform all the duties of the President as 
specified in § 1. 

§ S. The Secretary shall keep the minutes of all the 
meetings of the Association and Executive Committee. 
She shall conduct all correspondence except such as may 
be in the hands of the managers and shall be responsible 
for all the books and papers of the Association except 
those belonging to the Treasurer. 

§ 4. The Treasurer shall have charge of all money 
belonging to the Association. She shall pay all bills on 
order signed by the President and Secretary, and shall 
submit a written report of her transactions at the annual 
meeting of the Association or whenever called upon to 
do so by one of the Executive Committee. 

§ 5. It shall be the duty of the managers of the 
several teams to prepare a schedule of games. 

§ 6. All schedules of games and expenditures of 
money shall be submitted to the Executive Committee for 
ratification. They shall also have supervision of all 
matters relating to the Association, not otherwise 
provided for in the Constitution, and shall have 
power to remove captains and managers by four-fifths 
vote. 

§ 7. The Executive Committee shall hold at least one 
meeting each month during the school year. 



APPENDIX II 261 

§ 8. The Executive Committee shall hold a special 
meeting at the request of three members. 

§ 9. Three, one of whom shall be a teacher, shall con- 
stitute a quorum of the Executive Committee. 

ARTICLE VIII ELECTIONS 

§ 1. The President, Vice President, Secretary and 
Treasurer shall be elected by ballot at the annual Sep- 
tember meeting. 

§ 2. Team officers shall be elected when necessary. 

§ 3. The elections of captains shall be confirmed by 
the Executive Committee. 

§ 4. All vacancies occurring among the officers of the 
Association shall be filled by the Executive Committee. 

ARTICLE IX FEES 

§ 1. The membership dues of this Association shall be 
ten cents a month, payable monthly. 

§ 2. The dues for honorary members shall be the 
same as for active members. 

§ 3. Any member failing to pay her dues shall cease 
to be a member of the organization. 

ARTICLE X RESIGNATIONS 

All resignations shall be made in writing to the 
Secretary of the Association and shall be acted upon 
at the next meeting. 

ARTICLE XI SUSPENSION AND EXPULSION 

§ 1. The Association shall have power to punish any 
member by suspension or expulsion for any failure to 
comply with the articles of the Constitution or By-Laws 



262 APPENDIX II 

or for any conduct that will bring discredit on the 
Association. 

§ 2. The vote for suspension or expulsion shall be by 
ballot. A three-fourths vote of the members present at 
a meeting shall be necessary to expel or suspend. 

ARTICLE XII REINSTATEMENT 

Members, after suspension, may be reinstated by a 
three-fourths vote of the members present at a meeting. 

ARTICLE XIII AMENDMENT 

§ 1. This Constitution may be amended by a three- 
fourths vote of the members of the Association present 
and voting. 

§ 2. Notice of such proposed amendment shall be 
made at a previous meeting. 

by-laws 

1. The business meetings of this Association shall be 
carried on according to parliamentary law. 

2. Admittance to membership. Names may be pro- 
posed to the Membership Committee, who with the 
Executive Committee shall discuss and vote upon such 
names, after which the name or names may be brought 
before the Association with the recommendation of these 
two committees. Two-thirds of membership vote shall 
be necessary for election. 

3. No member of this Association shall play or 
practise basketball with any boy or boys from the 
High School or town. The least penalty for this offense 
shall be suspension from the privileges of this Associa- 
tion. 



APPENDIX II 263 

4. No public games shall be held to which men may 
be admitted. 

5. All questions of policy must be submitted to and 
passed upon by the Executive Committee before being 
put to vote by the Association. 

If not passed upon favorably by this committee they 
shall be rejected. 



INDEX 



Anatomy, courses in schools, 
59 

Associations, high school 
leagues, 72; athletic, in col- 
leges, 103; in private schools, 
93; functions of, 106; in set- 
tlements, 125, 128; social and 
educational value of, 128; 
influence upon contests, 157 

Audiences, social value of 
games to, 40; and contests, 
152; influence of on players, 
156 

Battle-ball, value of, 166 
Baseball, see Indoor baseball 
Basketball, in private schools, 
88, 90; in colleges, 100; in 
settlements, 123, 127; in 
high schools, 70; in school 
gardens, 119; in welfare 
work, 138; rules for men and 
women, 179; lineball, 181; 
non-interference rule, 186; 
physical requirements for, 
189; training green players, 
190; training forwards, 195; 
training guards, 197; train- 
ing center, 198; teaching 
rules, 198; team work, 199; 
use of signals, 210 
Boarding schools, athletics in, 

82 
Board of Education, and N. Y. 
athletic leagues, 75; and 
conferences, 81 

Camps, athletics in, 128 
Captain-ball, value of, 27; in 
colleges, 102, 166 



Captains, qualifications and 

duties of, 173 
Center-ball, value of, 166 
Citizenship, athletics and, 24; 
training for, 36; in country 
and village, 80 
Clubs, women's, 12; whist, 13 
Colleges, as schools for in- 
structors in athletics, 62; 
athletics in, 96; athletics for 
graduates of, 98; instructors 
in, 98; contests, 99; systems 
of work, 100; athletic as- 
sociations in, 103; field davs, 
108 
Confidence and teachers, 50 
Contests, high-school, 72; in- 
tercollegiate, 99; in parks, 
115; in settlements, 124; 
class, 149 ; interscholastic, 
150; effect on schoolgirls, 
151; and the audience, 152; 
prizes, 153; essentials of, 153, 
155; and audience, 156; and 
athletic organizations, 157; 
instructor's attitude toward, 
171; field etiquette, 177; 
dangers in, from conflicting 
basketball rules, 188 
Co-operation, training for, 31 
Country school athletic leagues, 

79 
Courage, training for, 34 

Dance halls, as recreation 

centers, 110 
Discipline, value of, 36; and 

instructors, 49; emphasis on, 

in reformatories, 141 
Drive ball, 27 



265 



266 



INDEX 



Elocution and oratory, schools 

of, 61 
Esthetics, and athletics, 38; 

form, 41; atmosphere as a 
part of, 4 J 
Etiquette, field, 177 

Fair play, training for, 32 
Field days, in colleges, 108; 
contests and, 158; programs 
for, 159; regulations, 160; 
field etiquette, 177 
Fields, municipal, 116 

Games, mental training 
through, 28; esthetic value of, 
38; atmosphere of, 41; educa- 
tion by minor, 165 

Gymnastics, instruction in, 53; 
in private schools, 91; in col- 
leges, 102 

Health, and athletics, 23; in- 
fluence of athletics on, 24; 
and high school games, 73 

High schools, training of teach- 
ers, 63; responsibility for 
selecting good teachers, 64; 
conditions in, 70; instruct- 
ors in, 71, leagues, 72; 
responsibility of parents and 
school authorities, 74; ath- 
letic leagues in, 75; remedies 
for conditions, 80; contests 
in, 149 

Hockey, value of training, 27; 
value of game, in colleges, 
101, 237 ; " instruction, 238 ; 
green squads, 239; offense 
and defense, 241; forwards, 
242; wings, 243; halfbacks, 
243; goal tenders, 244; team 
work, 245 

Imagination, training of, 30 
Immigrants, need of athletics 

for^ 134; and Y. W. C. A., 

137 



Immorality, increase of among 
women, 11 

Indoor baseball, value of train- 
ing, 27, 8S; advantages of 
game, 212; physical require- 
ments, 213; pitchers, 214; 
catchers, 215; batsmen, 217; 
base runners, 219; basemen, 
223; shortstops, 2-25; out- 
fielders, 225; coaching, 226; 
rules, 227; definitions of 
rules, 228 

Instruction, courses of, 53; 
combinations of courses in 
high schools, 89; need of in 
special schools, 147; use of 
prescription cards in, 169 

Instructors, special qualifica- 
tions of, 46; play spirit, 47; 
proficiency of, 48; general 
qualifications of, 51 ; relation 
to players, 52; men, 52; and 
schools of physical education, 
53; dishonesty of, 65; in high 
schools, 71 ; interference with, 
90; in colleges, 98; in private 
schools, 87; in settlements, 
124, 127; methods of teach- 
ing, 166; as officials, 171 

Investigation of conditions in 
athletics, 81 

Lacrosse, place and value, 166 
Leagues, athletic, public school, 
75; country school, 79; de- 
fects of, 78 
Legislation, and social ethics, 16 
Long-ball, value of, 166 
Loyalty, training in, 33 

Managers, duties and qualifica- 
tions of, 173 

Measurements, in private 
schools, 91 

Men, as instructors, 52 

Men's basketball rules, 180 

Normal schools, instruction in 
athletics, 62; and athletic 
leagues, 79 



INDEX 



26' 



Officials, deficient training of, 
59; responsibility for good 
game, 155, 157; women as, 
155; and audiences, 157; in- 
structors as, 171; qualifica- 
tions and duties of, 174; 
scorers, 175; timers, 176; 
linesmen, 179 

Organizations, non-ethical, 12; 
athletics in private schools, 
93 



Parents, and athletics, 43; at- 
titude toward play in coun- 
try, 80; responsibility of, 87 
Parks, Chicago system and 

work, 114 
Pass-ball, value of, 166 
Pedagogy, and athletics, 22 
Personal morality, women and, 

10 
Physical education, schools of, 
53; summer schools of, 57; 
defects of, 58 
Physician, excuses, 87, 101 
Physiology, courses in, 59 
Playgrounds, 112; associations, 
113; play festivals, 121; need 
of in N. Y. City, 121; and 
settlements, 123 
Polo, value of, 166 
Private schools, responsibility 
for teachers, 64; conditions 
in, 83; attitude toward, 84; 
gymnastics in, 85, 91; in- 
structors and parents, 87; 
chaperon coach, 89; methods 
of instruction, 91; measure- 
ments, 92; organizations, 93; 
remedies for present condi- 
tions, 94 
Prizes, too much emphasis 

upon, 153 
Probation work, use of athlet- 
ics in, 142 
Psychology, courses in, 59 
Public opinion, by women, 7 
Public school athletic league, 



75; and instructors, 77; de- 
fects of, 78 
Push-ball, value of, 27 

Reason, training of, 30 

Recreation centers, 117 

Reformatories, need of athlet- 
ics in, 141; conditions in, 
143; athletics in, 143 

Responsibility, training in sense 
of, 35 

Roofs, use of for games, 128, 
138 

Rules of the game, women's 
part in, 9; training in, in 
private schools, 89; general 
suggestions for teaching, 169 

Rules, basketball, 198; baseball, 
227; hockey, 239; methods of 
teaching, 172 

School gardens, 112, 118 
Schools of philanthropy, need 
of courses of instruction in 
athletics, 147 
Schools, physical education, 53; 
summer, 57; defects, 58; and 
social education, 60 ; of elocu- 
tion and oratory, 61; normal, 
62; university and college, 
62; use of for games, 122 
Self-control, training in, 30 
Settlements, 122; facilities for 
games, 123; and instructors, 
124; contests in, 124, 127; 
need of athletic associations, 
125, 128; svstems of work, 
125 
Social control, by women, 7 
Social education, 3; need of, 
19; influence of athletics on, 
20; special kind for women, 
24; by means of athletics, 26, 
116; and schools of physical 
training, 60; and athletic 
leagues, 78; and Y. W. C. A., 
137; need of in reforma- 
tories, 141 
Social ethics, women and, 10; 



268 



INDEX 



non-ethical acts and attitude, 
13; benevolence and, 15; 
legislation and, 16; and ath- 
letics, 29 

Social morality, women's in- 
fluence upon, S; and athlet- 
ic-, 29$ in reformatories, 146 

Sociology, cour^e^ in, 59 

Teams, appearance of, 153; 
and spirit of playing, 154 

Team work, and social ethics, 
15: hockey. ;?45 : limitations 
by women's rules in basket- 
ball, 1S4; basketball, 199; use 
of signals, 210 

Trades unions, value of athlet- 
ics in organization training, 
140; classes for in settle- 
ments, 141 

Training, athletic, neglect of, 
21; advantages, 26-38 

Universities, training in physi- 
cal education, 62 

Vacant lots, use of for games, 
120, 128 

Vacation homes, athletics in. 
128 

Vacation schools, need of so- 
cial education in, 19; athlet- 
ics in, 117 



Villages, athletics in, 80 
Volley-ball, value, 27, 166; in 
colleges, 102 

Welfare work, athletics as a 
part of, 138; in laundries, 
13S; use of roofs, 139; fields 
for workers, 139 

Women, social responsibility 
of, 3; as property holders, 
4; in politics, 4; in industry, 
5: in societv, 6; working and 
athletics, 130, 189; as of- 
ficials, 155 

Women's basketball rules, 179; 
disadvantages of, 181, 186 

Young Men's Christian Associa- 
tion, training: schools, 56, 
137, 147 

Young Women's Christian As- 
sociation, course of instruc- 
tion, 55: opportunities for 
social education, 129; need 
of work in, 130; facilities 
and methods. 131; fees, 133; 
limitations. 134: remedies, 
135; instructors in, 136, 137; 
use of Sundays, 136; immi- 
grants and, 137; need of 
training schools, 137 



STANDARD TEXT-BOOKS IN PHYSIOLOGY 
Fitz's Physiology and Hygiene 

By George W. Fitz, M.D., former Assistant Professor 
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In the hope of doing something toward furnishing a series where 
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BIRDS OF THE WORLD. A popular account by Frank H. 
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9 
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with Chapter on Anatomy of Birds by Frederic A. Lucas, 
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-2 



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Contents : Psychology and the Teaching Art ; The Stream of Consciousness ; 
The Child as a Behaving- Organism ; Education and Behavior ; The Neces- 
sity of Reactions ; Native and Acquired Reactions ; What the Native Reac- 
tions Are ; The Laws of Habit ; The Association of Ideas ; Interest ; Atten- 
tion ; Memory ; The Acquisition of Ideas ; Apperception ; The Will ; The 
Gospel of Relaxation ; On a Certain Blindness in Human Beings ; What 
Makes Life Significant. 

In writing these " Talks M out, the author has gradually weeded out as much 
as possible of the analytical technicalities of the science. In their present 
form they contain a minimum of what is deemed "scientific" in psychology 
and are practical and popular in the extreme. 

The Nation: "His style has the quality of a communicable fervor, a clear, 
grave passion of sincerity and conviction, from which some vibration detaches 
itself and passes into the reader, and forms him into the writer's mood.' 1 

The Critic : M When pedagogical libraries can show a preponderance of such 
books, they may well begin to rival the fiction departments in popularity." 

WALKER'S DISCUSSIONS IN 
EDUCATION 

By the late Francis A. Walker, President of the Massachu- 
setts Institute of Technology. Edited by James Phinney 
Munroe. 342 pp., 8vo. $3. co, net. 
The author had hoped himself to collect these papers in a volume. 

The Dial: "A fitting memorial to its author. . . . The breadth of his 
experience, as well as the natural range of his mind, are here reflected. The 
subjects dealt with are all live and practical. . . . He never deals with them 
in a narrow or so-called 'practical ■ way.' 1 

Literature : " The distinguishing traits of these papers are open-minded- 
ness, breadth, and sanity. . . . No capable student of education will overlook 
General Walker's book ; no serious collection of books on education will be 
without it. The distinguished author's honesty, sagacity, and courage shine 
on every page." 

The Boston Transcript : M Two of his conspicuous merits characterize these 
papers, the peculiar power he possessed of enlisting and retaining the attention 
for what are commonly supposed to be dry and difficult subjects, and the ca- 
pacity he had for controversy, sharp and incisive, but so candid and generous 
that it left no festering wound." 

HFNRY HOI T Rr TO 29 West 23d St., New York 
nClNI\I nULJ QLK^KJ. 378 Wabash Av*., Chicago 
V 'oa 



FEB Z 1903 



